Signaling angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis.

Exciting progress has been made in elucidating the complex network of receptor-ligand interactions that regulate blood vessel growth. Understanding these control mechanisms is of interest not only because of their role in developmental biology, but because they provide potential therapeutic strategies for disease processes involving angiogenesis, such as tumor growth.

Overexpression of VEGF in testis and epididymis causes infertility in transgenic mice: evidence for nonendothelial targets for VEGF.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a key regulator of endothelial growth and permeability. However, VEGF may also target nonendothelial cells, as VEGF receptors and responsiveness have been detected for example in monocytes, and high concentrations of VEGF have been reported in human semen. In this work we present evidence that overexpression of VEGF in the testis and epididymis of transgenic mice under the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) LTR promoter causes infertility. The testes of the transgenic mice exhibited spermatogenic arrest and increased capillary density. The ductus epididymidis was dilated, containing areas of epithelial hyperplasia. The number of subepithelial capillaries in the epididymis was also increased and these vessels were highly permeable as judged by the detection of extravasated fibrinogen products. Intriguingly, the expression of VEGF receptor-1 (VEGFR-1) was detected in certain spermatogenic cells in addition to vascular endothelium, and both VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 were also found in the Leydig cells of the testis. The infertility of the MMTV-VEGF male mice could thus result from VEGF acting on both endothelial and nonendothelial cells of the male genital tract. Taken together, these findings suggest that the VEGF transgene has nonendothelial target cells in the testis and that VEGF may regulate male fertility.

Endothelial receptor tyrosine kinases activate the STAT signaling pathway: mutant Tie-2 causing venous malformations signals a distinct STAT activation response.

Endothelial receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and their signaling mechanisms are of interest because they may control tumor angiogenesis and thereby tumor growth. In this report we have examined activation of the signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) by the three known vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFR1-3), as well as by the endothelial Tie-1 and -2 receptors. We also studied signaling by the R849W mutant of Tie-2 (MTie-2), which has been shown to cause venous malformations. When overexpressed in 293T cells, MTie-2 activated STAT1 while the other endothelial RTKs failed to do so. In contrast, the three VEGFRs were strong activators of STAT3 and STAT5, suggesting that they activate only a specific subset of these signal transducers. STAT3 and STAT5 were also activated by Tie-2 and, more so, by MTie-2. Tyrosine phosphorylation and DNA binding of STATs correlated with their ability to activate transcription as judged by luciferase assays. When co-expressed with STAT5, VEGFR-1 as well as both the Tie-2 receptor forms increased expression of the cell cycle inhibitor p21. Interestingly, co-expression of the Tie-2 receptors with STAT1 resulted in appearance of a novel, p21 related transcript. Taken together, these findings identify STAT proteins as novel targets for signal transduction by the endothelial RTKs, suggesting that they may be involved in the regulation of endothelial function.

IL-3 receptor expression, regulation and function in cells of the vasculature.

IL-3 is a haemopoietic growth factor which stimulates the production and functional activity of various blood cell types. Recent evidence suggests that the target cell population of IL-3 is not restricted to haemopoietic cells as previously thought, but vascular cells such as endothelial cells also express receptors for and respond to this cytokine. Interestingly, IL-3 was found to regulate endothelial responses related to inflammation, immunity and haemopoiesis. These findings, summarized in this review, offer new insight into the physiological function of IL-3 and may also be of clinical importance, as IL-3 is used in bone marrow reconstitution following cancer therapy.

Substrate-dependent utilization of the glycerol 3-phosphate or malate/aspartate redox shuttles by Ehrlich ascites cells.

The rate of transfer of reducing equivalents from cytoplasm to mitochondria has been examined in Ehrlich ascites tumour cells incubated in the presence of lactate. The flux of reducing equivalents was determined from the rate of metabolism of reduced intermediates that are oxidized within the cytosol. The magnitude of the flux of reducing equivalents was dependent on both the concentration of added lactate and the presence of carbohydrate. The rate of flux was twice as great in the presence of glucose and four times as high when glucose and lactate were added together as when lactate was the only added substrate. Fructose was less effective than glucose in stimulating reducing equivalent flux. In the presence of glucose or fructose, there was a substantial accumulation of hexose phosphates, dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glycerol 3-phosphate. Rotenone, an inhibitor of NADH dehydrogenase, and amino-oxyacetate, which inhibits the malate/aspartate shuttle, were powerful suppressors of reducing equivalent flux from lactate as sole substrate, but were much less potent in the presence of carbohydrate. Antimycin substantially inhibited reducing equivalent flux from all combinations of added substrates, consistent with its ability to block oxidation of reducing equivalents transferred by both the malate/aspartate and glycerol 3-phosphate shuttles. The glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle represents around 80% of the maximum total observed activity but is active only while glycolytic intermediates are present to provide the necessary substrates of the shuttle. This Ehrlich ascites cell line has an essentially similar total reducing equivalent shuttle capacity to that of isolated hepatocytes.

Interferon-gamma upregulates interleukin-3 (IL-3) receptor expression in human endothelial cells and synergizes with IL-3 in stimulating major histocompatibility complex class II expression and cytokine production.

The human interleukin-3 (IL-3) receptor is constitutively expressed on certain hematopoietic cells where it mediates proliferation and differentiation, or functional activation. We have recently found that human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) also express IL-3 receptors and that the expression is enhanced by stimulation with the monokine tumor necrosis factor alpha. In this report we show that the lymphokine interferon gamma (IFN gamma) is a powerful stimulator of the IL-3 receptor of HUVECs and that the combination of IL-3 and IFN gamma has a synergistic effect on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II expression and on the production of the early-acting hematopoietic cytokines IL-6 and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF). IFN gamma caused a time- and dose-dependent up-regulation of mRNA for both the alpha and beta chains of the IL-3 receptor, with maximal effects occurring 12 to 24 hours after stimulation with IFN gamma at 100 U/mL. Induction of mRNA correlated with protein expression on the cell surface, as judged by monoclonal antibody staining of both receptor chains and by the ability of HUVEC to specifically bind 125I-labeled IL-3 (125I-IL-3). Scatchard analysis of HUVECs stimulated with IFN gamma at 100 U/mL for 24 hours showed approximately 6,300 IL-3 receptors per cell that were of a high affinity class (dissociation constant [kd] = 500 pmol/L) only. The addition of IL-3 to IFN gamma-treated HUVECs strongly enhanced the expression of MHC class II antigen. Importantly, IFN gamma and IL-3 also exhibited a synergistic effect in the induction of the mRNA for G-CSF and IL-6. This was reflected in increased amounts of G-CSF and IL-6 protein in HUVEC supernatants. In contrast, IFN gamma and IL-3 did not stimulate granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) or IL-8 production in HUVECs. These results show that IFN gamma is a strong stimulator of IL-3 receptor expression in HUVECs and suggest that in vivo T-cell activation, causing the concomitant production of IFN gamma and IL-3, may lead to enhanced endothelial MHC class II expression and to the selective production of early-acting hematopoietic cytokines. Thus, IL-3 could influence immunity and hematopoiesis by acting not only on hematopoietic cells, but also on vascular endothelium.

The receptor for interleukin 3 is selectively induced in human endothelial cells by tumor necrosis factor alpha and potentiates interleukin 8 secretion and neutrophil transmigration.

Interleukin (IL)-3 stimulates hemopoiesis in vitro. However, IL-3 is not normally found in bone marrow, raising doubts as to the in vivo role of IL-3. We have found that human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) express functional high-affinity receptors for IL-3 after stimulation with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), IL-1 beta, or lipopolysaccharide, and that this receptor is involved in inflammatory phenomena. TNF-alpha caused time- and dose-dependent up-regulation of mRNA for the IL-3 receptor alpha and beta chains, with maximal effects occurring 16-36 h after stimulation with TNF-alpha at 100 units/ml. Induction of mRNA correlated with protein expression on the cell surface as judged by monoclonal antibody staining and by the ability of HUVEC to specifically bind 125I-labeled IL-3. Scatchard analysis under optimal conditions of TNF-alpha stimulation revealed approximately 1500 IL-3 receptors per cell, which were of a high-affinity class (Kd = 500 pM) only. In contrast to a previous report, receptors for granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor could not be detected. IL-3 binding to TNF-alpha-activated HUVEC enhanced IL-8 production, E-selection expression, and neutrophil transmigration. The selective induction of a functional IL-3 receptor on endothelial cells suggests that, beyond hemopoiesis, IL-3 may have an important role in chronic inflammation and in allergic diseases.

Neutrophils activated by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor express receptors for interleukin-3 which mediate class II expression.

Freshly isolated peripheral blood neutrophils, unlike monocytes and eosinophils, do not bind interleukin-3 (IL-3) or respond to IL-3). We show that neutrophils cultured for 24 hours in granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) express mRNA for the IL-3 receptor (R) alpha subunit, as shown by RNase protection assays, and IL-3R alpha chain protein, as shown by cytometric analysis using two different specific monoclonal antibodies. This effect was selective for GM-CSF, because granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, and IL-1 failed to induce the IL-3 receptor. Saturation binding curves with 125I-IL-3 and Scatchard transformation showed the presence of about 100 high-affinity and 4,000 low-affinity receptors. Because neutrophils have been shown to express human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR in response to GM-CSF, we examined the possibility that IL-3 could augment HLA-DR expression on GM-CSF-treated cells. We found that neutrophils incubated with 30 ng/mL IL-3 as well as 0.1 ng/mL GM-CSF expressed a mean of 2.1-fold higher levels of HLA-DR than with GM-CSF alone (P < .005), confirming the signaling competence of the newly expressed IL-3R. This increase was seen even at maximal concentrations of GM-CSF and IL-3 can have an additive effect on mature human cells. The augmentation of HLA-DR by IL-3 was specific because it could be inhibited by a blocking anti-IL-3R antibody. Expression of class II molecules by neutrophils under these conditions may have significance for antigen presentation. These results provide further evidence for the role of GM-CSF as an amplification factor in inflammation by inducing neutrophil responsiveness to IL-3 produced by T cells or mast cells.

Chronic expression of P-selectin on endothelial cells stimulated by the T-cell cytokine, interleukin-3.

P-selectin expressed on the surface of endothelium mediates leukocyte adhesion in vitro and rolling in vivo. Several inducers of cell-surface P-selectin expression on endothelial cells (EC) have previously been identified, all of which yield transient cell-surface expression of P-selectin lasting minutes to a few hours. We now show that a T-lymphocyte product, interleukin-3 (IL-3), stimulates the long-term endothelial cells (HUVEC). IL-3 induced cell-surface P-selectin expression in two phases. An initial peak at 10 minutes was followed by a prolonged upregulation beginning 16 hours after IL-3 addition and lasting at least 4 days. The level of P-selectin expression induced by IL-3 added for 48 hours was similar to that induced by treatment of HUVEC for 10 minutes with thrombin, and the effect of adding IL-3 for 48 hours followed by thrombin for 10 minutes was additive. Induction of cell-surface P-selectin expression by IL-3 was blocked by pretreatment of EC with a blocking monoclonal antibody against the IL-3 receptor alpha-chain. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) and a mutant form of IL-3 with decreased potency did not induce cell-surface P-selectin expression after 48 hours' incubation with HUVEC, suggesting that the effect was specific to IL-3. The increase in cell-surface P-selectin expression occurring after 16 hours of incubation with IL-3 was accompanied by a similar prolonged increase in the steady-state mRNA level that was not observed at 10 minutes after IL-3 addition. As T-lymphocyte infiltration is a hallmark of chronic inflammation, our observations suggest that the secretion of IL-3 by T lymphocytes may serve to maintain the inflammatory state during chronic inflammation.

Monoclonal antibody 7G3 recognizes the N-terminal domain of the human interleukin-3 (IL-3) receptor alpha-chain and functions as a specific IL-3 receptor antagonist.

The human interleukin-3 receptor (IL-3R) is expressed on myeloid, lymphoid, and vascular endothelial cells, where it transduces IL-3-dependent signals leading to cell activation. Although IL-3R activation may play a role in hematopoiesis and immunity, its aberrant expression or excessive stimulation may contribute to pathologic conditions such as leukemia, lymphoma, and allergic reactions. We describe here the generation and characterization of a monoclonal antibody (MoAb), 7G3, which specifically binds to the IL-3R alpha-chain and completely abolishes its function. MoAb 7G3 immunoprecipitated and recognized in Western blots the IL-3R alpha-chain expressed by transfected cells and bound to primary cells expressing IL-3R alpha. MoAb 7G3 bound the IL-3R alpha-chain with a kd of 900 pmol/L and inhibited 125I-IL-3 binding to high- and low-affinity receptors in a dose-dependent manner. Conversely, IL-3 but not granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) inhibited 125I-7G3 binding to high- and low-affinity IL-3Rs, indicating that MoAb 7G3 and IL-3 bind to common or adjacent sites. In keeping with the inhibition of IL-3 binding, MoAb 7G3 antagonized IL-3 biologic activities, namely stimulation of TF-1 cell proliferation, basophil histamine release, and IL-6 and IL-8 secretion from human endothelial cells. Two other anti-IL-3R alpha-chain MoAbs failed to inhibit IL-3 binding or function. Epitope mapping experiments using truncated IL-3R alpha-chain mutants and IL-3R alpha/GM-CSFR alpha chimeras revealed that 31 amino acids in the N-terminus of IL-3R alpha were required for MoAb 7G3 binding. MoAb 7G3 may be of clinical significance for antagonizing IL-3 in pathologic conditions such as some myeloid leukemias, follicular B-cell lymphoma, and allergy. Furthermore, these results implicate the N-terminal domain of IL-3R alpha in IL-3 binding. Since this domain is unique to the IL-3/GM-CSF/IL-5 receptor subfamily, it may represent a novel and common binding feature in these receptors.