Involvement of hepatocyte growth factor in the development of bone metastasis of a mouse mammary cancer cell line, BALB/c-MC.

Some cancers frequently affect the skeleton, and the bone microenvironment supports growth of certain cancer cells. After tumors metastasize to bone, they stimulate osteoclastogenesis and expand in the bone tissue. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), which was originally identified as a potent mitogen for hepatocytes, promotes tumor growth, invasion and metastasis. HGF is mainly produced by cells of mesenchymal origin, and osteoblasts/osteocytes and bone marrow stromal cells originate from mesenchymal cells. However, it is not clear what effect HGF has on tumor progression in bone metastasis. In the present study, we investigated the roles of HGF in bone metastasis using the mouse mammary cancer cell line BALB/c-MC. Cancer cells injected into hearts of mice metastasized to bone in their hind limbs. HGF immunoreactivity was detected in the stroma surrounding the tumor nests, and blood vessels expressing CD31 (a marker of endothelial cells) were observed in the HGF-positive area. To identify the cells producing HGF, we measured concentration of HGF in culture media. HGF concentration was elevated in osteoblast cultures (3.13+/-0.25 ng/ml), whereas HGF was undetectable (<0.4 ng/ml) in BALB/c-MC and bone marrow cell cultures. HGF concentration in osteoblast cultures increased 2.5-fold in response to 10(-6) M PGE(2). Addition of HGF to BALB/c-MC cultures caused doubling of the cell number. Moreover, Western blot analysis revealed expression of c-Met/HGF receptor by BALB/c-MC. In the Matrigel invasion chamber assay, addition of HGF to the bottom well increased the rate at which BALB/c-MC invaded the bottom well through the membrane. Furthermore, when osteoblasts were cultured in the bottom well, the number of BALB/c-MC cells that invaded the bottom well through the membrane increased 3.7-fold, compared to assays without osteoblasts. Addition of NK4, an inhibitor of HGF, completely abolished the enhancement of the invasive potential of the BALB/c-MC cells in the presence of osteoblasts. These findings suggest that HGF produced by osteoblasts induces migration of cancer cells from sinusoidal capillaries to bone marrow space and stimulates growth of cancer cells in the bone microenvironment. Thus, osteoblasts appear to promote bone metastasis of some cancers via HGF-c-Met signaling.

Biphasic effect of prostaglandin E2 on osteoclast formation in spleen cell cultures: role of the EP2 receptor.

UNLABELLED: We examined the effect of PGE2 on OC formation from spleen cells treated with M-CSF and RANKL. PGE2 decreased OC number at 5-6 days of culture and increased OC number, size, and resorptive activity at 7-8 days. A selective EP2 receptor agonist mimicked these effects. Deletion of the EP2 receptor or depletion of T-cells abrogated the increase in OC number. INTRODUCTION: Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) has been reported to increase osteoclast (OC) number in spleen cells cultured with RANKL and macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF). In this study, we examined the time course of PGE2 effects on spleen cells cultured with RANKL and M-CSF. We then investigated which PGE receptors and cell types were involved in these effects. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Spleen cells were cultured from wildtype C57BL/6 mice and EP2 or EP4 receptor-deficient (-/-) and wildtype (+/+) mice on a mixed genetic background. Spleen cells were cultured with M-CSF and RANKL for 5-9 days with or without PGE2 or selective agonists for the four PGE2 receptors (EP1A, EP2A, EP3A, or EP4A). Some cultures were performed using T-cell-depleted spleen cells. OC number and size were quantitated. OC apoptosis and pit formation were measured at 7 or 8 days. RESULTS: PGE2 decreased the number of OCs formed in the presence of RANKL and M-CSF at 5-6 days of culture and increased OC number at 8-9 days compared with cultures without PGE2. PGE2 also increased OC size at 7 and 8 days, decreased apoptosis of OC at 7 days, and increased pit formation at 8 days. EP1A or EP4A had no effect on OC. EP3A decreased OC number. EP2A mimicked effect of PGE2. EP2(-/-) spleen cells showed no increase in OC number in response to PGE2, whereas deletion of EP4 had no effect. Depletion of T-cells abrogated the late increase of OC number. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that PGE2 has an initial inhibitory effect on OC formation in spleen cell cultures, possibly mediated by both EP2 and EP3 receptors, and a later stimulatory effect, mediated by the EP2 receptor, possibly acting on T-cells.

Involvement of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in osteoclast formation and bone destruction in bone metastasis of mammary carcinoma cell lines.

We previously reported that mouse mammary carcinoma cell lines (MMT060562 and BALB/c-MC) induced osteoclast formation through production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in cocultures with mouse bone marrow cells, but the mechanism(s) of PG production remained unclear. In the present in vitro and in vivo studies, we tested the involvement of cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2), an inducible rate-limiting enzyme in PG biosynthesis, in the stimulation of osteoclast formation by mouse mammary carcinoma cell lines. Addition of a selective COX-2 inhibitor, JTE-522, to cocultures of mammary carcinoma cell lines and bone marrow cells lowered PGE2 concentration in the culture media and inhibited osteoclast formation in a dose-dependent manner. Northern blotting showed a very high level of COX-2 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in MMT060562. The mRNA expression was low in BALB/c-MC, but it increased when BALB/c-MC and bone marrow cells were cocultured. The results of immunocytochemistry for COX-2 protein in respective cultures were compatible with the results of COX-2 mRNA. In vivo, BALB/c-MC injected into the heart of Balb/c mice metastasized to bone and formed osteolytic lesions in their hindlimbs. Histological examination revealed that tumor cells had metastasized to the bone marrow cavity and destroyed the bone trabeculae. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated that bone marrow stromal cells adjacent to tumor cells expressed COX-2 protein. These findings suggest that COX-2 plays an important role in the osteolysis of bone metastasis in vivo as well as in osteoclast formation in cocultures used as an in vitro model of metastatic bone disease.

The effect of deletion of cyclooxygenase-2, prostaglandin receptor EP2, or EP4 in bone marrow cells on osteoclasts induced by mouse mammary cancer cell lines.

The inducible prostaglandin (PG) synthesis enzyme, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), is involved in osteoclast (OC) formation in cocultures of mouse mammary cancer cell lines (MMT060562 or BALB/c-MC) and bone marrow cells through production of PGE(2). There are four PGE(2) receptors but only the EP2 and EP4 receptors are reported to be important for OC formation. We have investigated the role of COX-2, EP2 receptor, and EP4 receptor in marrow cells for osteoclastogenesis in cocultures of cancer cells and bone marrow cells. We cocultured cancer cell lines with bone marrow cells from COX-2 knockout (-/-), EP2 -/- or EP4 -/- mice compared to wild-type mice. In addition, an EP4 receptor antagonist (EP4 RA) was added in some cocultures. Disruption of COX-2 gene in bone marrow cells had no effect on PGE(2) production and OC formation in cocultures with MMT060562, while it abrogated PGE(2) production and OC formation in cocultures with BALB/c-MC. Disruption of the EP2 gene in bone marrow cells had no effect on OC formation in the cocultures, while disruption of the EP4 gene in bone marrow cells abrogated OC formation in the cocultures. Furthermore, EP4 RA suppressed OC formation and prevented the increase in receptor activator of nuclear factor kappaB ligand (RANKL) mRNA levels in the cocultures. We conclude that COX-2 in cancer cells is responsible for PGE(2) and OC production in cocultures with MMT060562, while COX-2 in bone marrow cells, not cancer cells, is responsible for PGE(2) and OC production in cocultures with BALB/c-MC, and EP4 receptors are essential for OC formation in both cocultures.

The relationship between fish intake and the prevalence of asthma: the Tokorozawa childhood asthma and pollinosis study.

OBJECTIVE: The Japanese have a higher intake of fish and a lower incidence of asthma than occupants of western countries. The present epidemiological study investigated the relationship between dietary fish intake and the prevalence of asthma among a childhood population. METHODS: Subjects represented all public elementary and junior high schools in Tokorozawa City in Japan (age range: 6-15 years old). The study population included 1,673 currently asthmatic students and 22,109 controls. Participants' parents completed the Japanese version of American Thoracic Society and Division of Lung Diseases, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute questionnaire for children, adopted by the Japan Environment Agency. We added supplementary questions (e.g., parental history of asthma and questions about frequency of foods eaten, including frequency of fish intake). Odds ratios for cases of current asthma according to frequency of fish intake were calculated, and a logistic regression analysis was used to adjust for possible confounding variables. RESULTS: After adjustments for age, gender, parental history of asthma, and vegetables and fruits intake, a significantly higher prevalence of asthma was noted among subjects who ate fish one to two times a week than among those who ate fish one to two times a month (adjusted odds ratio: 1.117; 95% confidence interval: 1.005-1.241; P = 0.041). The risk increased gradually with increasing frequency of fish intake, and the positive trend was statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated that frequency of fish intake was positively related to the prevalence of asthma. This result might have important implications for health.