GPCR-mediated glucose sensing system regulates light-dependent fungal development and mycotoxin production.

Microorganisms sense environmental fluctuations in nutrients and light, coordinating their growth and development accordingly. Despite their critical roles in fungi, only a few G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been characterized. The Aspergillus nidulans genome encodes 86 putative GPCRs. Here, we characterise a carbon starvation-induced GPCR-mediated glucose sensing mechanism in A. nidulans. This includes two class V (gprH and gprI) and one class VII (gprM) GPCRs, which in response to glucose promote cAMP signalling, germination and hyphal growth, while negatively regulating sexual development in a light-dependent manner. We demonstrate that GprH regulates sexual development via influencing VeA activity, a key light-dependent regulator of fungal morphogenesis and secondary metabolism. We show that GprH and GprM are light-independent negative regulators of sterigmatocystin biosynthesis. Additionally, we reveal the epistatic interactions between the three GPCRs in regulating sexual development and sterigmatocystin production. In conclusion, GprH, GprM and GprI constitute a novel carbon starvation-induced glucose sensing mechanism that functions upstream of cAMP-PKA signalling to regulate fungal development and mycotoxin production.

Aspergillus fumigatus calcium-responsive transcription factors regulate cell wall architecture promoting stress tolerance, virulence and caspofungin resistance.

Aspergillus fumigatus causes invasive aspergillosis, the most common life-threatening fungal disease of immuno-compromised humans. The treatment of disseminated infections with antifungal drugs, including echinocandin cell wall biosynthesis inhibitors, is increasingly challenging due to the rise of drug-resistant pathogens. The fungal calcium responsive calcineurin-CrzA pathway influences cell morphology, cell wall composition, virulence, and echinocandin resistance. A screen of 395 A. fumigatus transcription factor mutants identified nine transcription factors important to calcium stress tolerance, including CrzA and ZipD. Here, comparative transcriptomics revealed CrzA and ZipD regulated the expression of shared and unique gene networks, suggesting they participate in both converged and distinct stress response mechanisms. CrzA and ZipD additively promoted calcium stress tolerance. However, ZipD also regulated cell wall organization, osmotic stress tolerance and echinocandin resistance. The absence of ZipD in A. fumigatus caused a significant virulence reduction in immunodeficient and immunocompetent mice. The ΔzipD mutant displayed altered cell wall organization and composition, while being more susceptible to macrophage killing and eliciting an increased pro-inflammatory cytokine response. A higher number of neutrophils, macrophages and activated macrophages were found in ΔzipD infected mice lungs. Collectively, this shows that ZipD-mediated regulation of the fungal cell wall contributes to the evasion of pro-inflammatory responses and tolerance of echinocandin antifungals, and in turn promoting virulence and complicating treatment options.

A second component of the SltA-dependent cation tolerance pathway in Aspergillus nidulans.

The transcriptional response to alkali metal cation stress is mediated by the zinc finger transcription factor SltA in Aspergillus nidulans and probably in other fungi of the pezizomycotina subphylum. A second component of this pathway has been identified and characterized. SltB is a 1272 amino acid protein with at least two putative functional domains, a pseudo-kinase and a serine-endoprotease, involved in signaling to the transcription factor SltA. Absence of SltB activity results in nearly identical phenotypes to those observed for a null sltA mutant. Hypersensitivity to a variety of monovalent and divalent cations, and to medium alkalinization are among the phenotypes exhibited by a null sltB mutant. Calcium homeostasis is an exception and this cation improves growth of sltΔ mutants. Moreover, loss of kinase HalA in conjunction with loss-of-function sltA or sltB mutations leads to pronounced calcium auxotrophy. sltA sltB double null mutants display a cation stress sensitive phenotype indistinguishable from that of single slt mutants showing the close functional relationship between these two proteins. This functional relationship is reinforced by the fact that numerous mutations in both slt loci can be isolated as suppressors of poor colonial growth resulting from certain null vps (vacuolar protein sorting) mutations. In addition to allowing identification of sltB, our sltB missense mutations enabled prediction of functional regions in the SltB protein. Although the relationship between the Slt and Vps pathways remains enigmatic, absence of SltB, like that of SltA, leads to vacuolar hypertrophy. Importantly, the phenotypes of selected sltA and sltB mutations demonstrate that suppression of null vps mutations is not dependent on the inability to tolerate cation stress. Thus a specific role for both SltA and SltB in the VPS pathway seems likely. Finally, it is noteworthy that SltA and SltB have a similar, limited phylogenetic distribution, being restricted to the pezizomycotina subphylum. The relevance of the Slt regulatory pathway to cell structure, intracellular trafficking and cation homeostasis and its restricted phylogenetic distribution makes this pathway of general interest for future investigation and as a source of targets for antifungal drugs.

The low affinity glucose transporter HxtB is also involved in glucose signalling and metabolism in Aspergillus nidulans.

One of the drawbacks during second-generation biofuel production from plant lignocellulosic biomass is the accumulation of glucose, the preferred carbon source of microorganisms, which causes the repression of hydrolytic enzyme secretion by industrially relevant filamentous fungi. Glucose sensing, subsequent transport and cellular signalling pathways have been barely elucidated in these organisms. This study therefore characterized the transcriptional response of the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans to the presence of high and low glucose concentrations under continuous chemostat cultivation with the aim to identify novel factors involved in glucose sensing and signalling. Several transcription factor- and transporter-encoding genes were identified as being differentially regulated, including the previously characterized glucose and xylose transporter HxtB. HxtB was confirmed to be a low affinity glucose transporter, localizing to the plasma membrane under low- and high-glucose conditions. Furthermore, HxtB was shown to be involved in conidiation-related processes and may play a role in downstream glucose signalling. A gene predicted to encode the protein kinase PskA was also identified as being important for glucose metabolism. This study identified several proteins with predicted roles in glucose metabolic processes and provides a foundation for further investigation into the response of biotechnologically important filamentous fungi to glucose.

Proteolytic activation of both components of the cation stress-responsive Slt pathway in Aspergillus nidulans.

Tolerance of Aspergillus nidulans to alkalinity and elevated cation concentrations requires both SltA and SltB. Transcription factor SltA and the putative pseudokinase/protease signaling protein SltB comprise a regulatory pathway specific to filamentous fungi. In vivo, SltB is proteolytically cleaved into its two principal domains. Mutational analysis defines a chymotrypsin-like serine protease domain that mediates SltB autoproteolysis and proteolytic cleavage of SltA. The pseudokinase domain might modulate the protease activity of SltB. Three forms of the SltA transcription factor coexist in cells: a full-length, 78-kDa version and a processed, 32-kDa form, which is found in phosphorylated and unphosphorylated states. The SltA32kDa version mediates transcriptional regulation of sltB and, putatively, genes required for tolerance to cation stress and alkalinity. The full-length form, SltA78kDa, apparently has no transcriptional function. In the absence of SltB, only the primary product of SltA is detectable, and its level equals that of SltA78kDa. Mutations in sltB selected as suppressors of null vps alleles and resulting in cation/alkalinity sensitivity either reduced or eliminated SltA proteolysis. There is no evidence for cation or alkalinity regulation of SltB cleavage, but activation of sltB expression requires SltA. This work identifies the molecular mechanisms governing the Slt pathway.

In Aspergillus nidulans the suppressors suaA and suaC code for release factors eRF1 and eRF3 and suaD codes for a glutamine tRNA.

In Aspergillus nidulans, after extensive mutagenesis, a collection of mutants was obtained and four suppressor loci were identified genetically that could suppress mutations in putative chain termination mutations in different genes. Suppressor mutations in suaB and suaD have a similar restricted spectrum of suppression and suaB111 was previously shown to be an alteration in the anticodon of a gln tRNA. We have shown that like suaB, a suaD suppressor has a mutation in the anticodon of another gln tRNA allowing suppression of UAG mutations. Mutations in suaA and suaC had a broad spectrum of suppression. Four suaA mutations result in alterations in the coding region of the eukaryotic release factor, eRF1, and another suaA mutation has a mutation in the upstream region of eRF1 that prevents splicing of the first intron within the 5'UTR. Epitope tagging of eRF1 in this mutant results in 20% of the level of eRF1 compared to the wild-type. Two mutations in suaC result in alterations in the eukaryotic release factor, eRF3. This is the first description in Aspergillus nidulans of an alteration in eRF3 leading to suppression of chain termination mutations.