Abnormal HDL lipid and protein composition following pediatric cancer treatment: an associative study.

BACKGROUND: Long-term childhood cancer survivors (CCS) are at high risk of having dyslipidemia including low high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). However, little is known about the prevalence of low HDL-C and the impact of therapy exposure on HDL composition early after treatment is terminated. METHODS: This associative study included 50 children and adolescents who had completed their cancer treatments (< 4 years). Clinical characteristics (demographic, diagnosis, treatment, anthropometric parameters), fasting plasma lipids, apoliporoteins (Apo) A-I and composition of HDL fractions (HDL2 and HDL3) were assessed. Data were stratified according to the presence of dyslipidemia and median doses of therapeutic agents and compared using Fisher exact or Mann-Whitney tests. Univariate binary logistic regression analyses were carried out to evaluate the associations between the clinical and biochemical characteristics and having low HDL-C. Composition of HDL2 and HDL3 particles was assessed in a sub-group of 15 patients and compared to 15 age- and sex-matched healthy controls using Wilcoxon paired test. RESULTS: Of the 50 pediatric cancer patients included in this study (mean age: 11.30 ± 0.72 y; mean time since end of treatment: 1.47 ± 0.12 y; male: 38%), 8 had low HDL-C (16%), all of which were adolescent at diagnosis. Higher doses of doxorubicin were associated with lower HDL-C and Apo A-I levels. In hypertriglyceridemic patients and compared to normolipidemics, triglycerides (TG) content was greater in HDL2 and HDL3 fractions whereas esterified cholesterol (EC) content was lower in HDL2. Enrich TG content of HDL3 and lower EC of HDL2 was found in patients exposed to ≥ 90 mg/m2 doxorubicin. Factors positively associated with the risk of having low HDL-C were age, being overweight or obese and exposure to doxorubicin ≥ 90 mg/m2. Compared to healthy controls, a sub-group of 15 patients showed higher TG and free cholesterol (FC) content of HDL2 and HDL3 and lower EC content in HDL3. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, we found abnormalities in HDL-C and Apo A-I levels and in HDL composition early after pediatric cancer treatment that are influenced by age, overweight or obesity status and exposure to doxorubicin.

Cardiometabolic Health After Pediatric Cancer Treatment: Adolescents Are More Affected than Children.

This cross-sectional study aimed at comparing the cardiometabolic (CM) health of children and adolescents and identifying factors associated with CM complications shortly after cancer treatment. Cancer-related characteristics, blood pressure (BP), anthropometry, and biochemical parameters were collected in 80 patients (56.3% female, mean age: 11.8 years; range: 4.5 - 21.0) a mean of 1.4 years following therapy completion. Compared to children, adolescents had higher mean z-score of insulin (-0.47 vs. 0.20; P = 0.01), HOMA-IR (-0.40 vs. 0.25; P = 0.02), waist-to-height ratio (0.36 vs. 0.84; P = 0.01), subscapular skinfold thickness (-0.19 vs. 0.47; P = 0.02), total body fat (-1.43 vs. 0.26; P < 0.01), and lower mean z-score of HDL-C (0.07 vs. -0.53; P < 0.01). Adolescents were more likely to have high BP (42% vs. 15%; P < 0.01), dyslipidemia (64% vs. 15%; P < 0.001), and cumulating ≥ 2 CM complications (42% vs. 2%; P < 0.001) than children. Adiposity indices (z-scores) were associated with high BP [odds ratio (OR) ranging from 2.11 to 4.09] and dyslipidemia (OR ranging from 2.06 to 4.34). These results suggest that adolescents have a worse CM profile than children shortly after therapy and that adiposity parameters are associated with CM complications, highliting the importance to develop intervention strategies targeting this population.

Global characterization of copy number variants in epilepsy patients from whole genome sequencing.

Epilepsy will affect nearly 3% of people at some point during their lifetime. Previous copy number variants (CNVs) studies of epilepsy have used array-based technology and were restricted to the detection of large or exonic events. In contrast, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) has the potential to more comprehensively profile CNVs but existing analytic methods suffer from limited accuracy. We show that this is in part due to the non-uniformity of read coverage, even after intra-sample normalization. To improve on this, we developed PopSV, an algorithm that uses multiple samples to control for technical variation and enables the robust detection of CNVs. Using WGS and PopSV, we performed a comprehensive characterization of CNVs in 198 individuals affected with epilepsy and 301 controls. For both large and small variants, we found an enrichment of rare exonic events in epilepsy patients, especially in genes with predicted loss-of-function intolerance. Notably, this genome-wide survey also revealed an enrichment of rare non-coding CNVs near previously known epilepsy genes. This enrichment was strongest for non-coding CNVs located within 100 Kbp of an epilepsy gene and in regions associated with changes in the gene expression, such as expression QTLs or DNase I hypersensitive sites. Finally, we report on 21 potentially damaging events that could be associated with known or new candidate epilepsy genes. Our results suggest that comprehensive sequence-based profiling of CNVs could help explain a larger fraction of epilepsy cases.

High Rate of Recurrent De Novo Mutations in Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathies.

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE) is a group of conditions characterized by the co-occurrence of epilepsy and intellectual disability (ID), typically with developmental plateauing or regression associated with frequent epileptiform activity. The cause of DEE remains unknown in the majority of cases. We performed whole-genome sequencing (WGS) in 197 individuals with unexplained DEE and pharmaco-resistant seizures and in their unaffected parents. We focused our attention on de novo mutations (DNMs) and identified candidate genes containing such variants. We sought to identify additional subjects with DNMs in these genes by performing targeted sequencing in another series of individuals with DEE and by mining various sequencing datasets. We also performed meta-analyses to document enrichment of DNMs in candidate genes by leveraging our WGS dataset with those of several DEE and ID series. By combining these strategies, we were able to provide a causal link between DEE and the following genes: NTRK2, GABRB2, CLTC, DHDDS, NUS1, RAB11A, GABBR2, and SNAP25. Overall, we established a molecular diagnosis in 63/197 (32%) individuals in our WGS series. The main cause of DEE in these individuals was de novo point mutations (53/63 solved cases), followed by inherited mutations (6/63 solved cases) and de novo CNVs (4/63 solved cases). De novo missense variants explained a larger proportion of individuals in our series than in other series that were primarily ascertained because of ID. Moreover, these DNMs were more frequently recurrent than those identified in ID series. These observations indicate that the genetic landscape of DEE might be different from that of ID without epilepsy.

The VIE study: feasibility of a physical activity intervention in a multidisciplinary program in children with cancer.

BACKGROUND: Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world. The physiological and psychological benefits of physical activity have been shown in children with cancer. However, almost one in two cancer patients do not follow the physical activity guidelines. The aim of this study will be to assess the feasibility of a physical activity program intervention in pediatric oncology and to assess the barriers and facilitators to the success or failure of this physical activity program. METHODS: The VIE (valorization, implication, and education) intervention is a multidisciplinary program including physical activity, nutritional, and psychological interventions in pediatric oncology. This study involves one intervention group that will be followed over 2 years (evaluations and physical activity interventions) and one control group that will participate in only one evaluation. Children from the intervention group have been diagnosed and will be undergoing treatment at the Charles-Bruneau oncology center from the Sainte-Justine University Health Center (Montreal, Canada). The feasibility of this program will be measured through a comparison between sessions performed and sessions scheduled, while the security will be measured according to the number of reported incidents. DISCUSSION: This study will examine the effects of exercise in pediatric oncology from diagnosis to the expected end of treatment (i.e., 2 years of follow-up). Currently, there are only a few longitudinal studies on physical activity and pediatric cancer. Physiological and psychological tests will allow a better knowledge of the evolution of the physical fitness and mental health of the patients during the period of care. It is necessary to document and provide complementary knowledge in the pediatric oncology field in order to engage the discourse with pediatric oncology health professionals to help patients during and after treatment. This is an important study in the exercise and oncology field to help patients and their family during and after cancer treatments.

Human copy number variants are enriched in regions of low mappability.

Copy number variants (CNVs) are known to affect a large portion of the human genome and have been implicated in many diseases. Although whole-genome sequencing (WGS) can help identify CNVs, most analytical methods suffer from limited sensitivity and specificity, especially in regions of low mappability. To address this, we use PopSV, a CNV caller that relies on multiple samples to control for technical variation. We demonstrate that our calls are stable across different types of repeat-rich regions and validate the accuracy of our predictions using orthogonal approaches. Applying PopSV to 640 human genomes, we find that low-mappability regions are approximately 5 times more likely to harbor germline CNVs, in stark contrast to the nearly uniform distribution observed for somatic CNVs in 95 cancer genomes. In addition to known enrichments in segmental duplication and near centromeres and telomeres, we also report that CNVs are enriched in specific types of satellite and in some of the most recent families of transposable elements. Finally, using this comprehensive approach, we identify 3455 regions with recurrent CNVs that were missing from existing catalogs. In particular, we identify 347 genes with a novel exonic CNV in low-mappability regions, including 29 genes previously associated with disease.

SYN1 loss-of-function mutations in autism and partial epilepsy cause impaired synaptic function.

Several genes predisposing to autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) with or without epilepsy have been identified, many of which are implicated in synaptic function. Here we report a Q555X mutation in synapsin 1 (SYN1), an X-linked gene encoding for a neuron-specific phosphoprotein implicated in the regulation of neurotransmitter release and synaptogenesis. This nonsense mutation was found in all affected individuals from a large French-Canadian family segregating epilepsy and ASDs. Additional mutations in SYN1 (A51G, A550T and T567A) were found in 1.0 and 3.5% of French-Canadian individuals with autism and epilepsy, respectively. The majority of these SYN1 mutations were clustered in the proline-rich D-domain which is substrate of multiple protein kinases. When expressed in synapsin I (SynI) knockout (KO) neurons, all the D-domain mutants failed in rescuing the impairment in the size and trafficking of synaptic vesicle pools, whereas the wild-type human SynI fully reverted the KO phenotype. Moreover, the nonsense Q555X mutation had a dramatic impact on phosphorylation by MAPK/Erk and neurite outgrowth, whereas the missense A550T and T567A mutants displayed impaired targeting to nerve terminals. These results demonstrate that SYN1 is a novel predisposing gene to ASDs, in addition to epilepsy, and strengthen the hypothesis that a disturbance of synaptic homeostasis underlies the pathogenesis of both diseases.

Improvement of Diet after an Early Nutritional Intervention in Pediatric Oncology.

Pediatric cancer survivors may experience cardiometabolic sequelae over the course of their lives as a result of the treatments they have received. While nutrition consists of an actionable target for cardiometabolic health, few nutritional interventions have been documented in this population. This study assessed the changes in diet during a one-year nutritional intervention for children and adolescents undergoing cancer treatments and the participants' anthropometric and cardiometabolic profiles. A total of 36 children and adolescents (mean age: 7.9 years, 52.8% male) newly diagnosed with cancer (50% leukemia) and their parents underwent a one-year individualized nutrition intervention. The mean number of follow-up visits with the dietitian during the intervention was 4.72 ± 1.06. Between the initial and one-year assessments, there was an improvement in diet quality reflected by the Diet Quality Index (5.22 ± 9.95, p = 0.003). Similarly, the proportion of participants with moderate and good adherence (vs. low adherence) to the Healthy Diet Index score almost tripled after one year of intervention (14% vs. 39%, p = 0.012). In parallel, there was an increase in the mean z-scores for weight (0.29 ± 0.70, p = 0.019) and BMI (0.50 ± 0.88, p = 0.002), and in the mean levels of HDL-C (0.27 ± 0.37 mmol/L, p = 0.002) and 25-hydroxy vitamin D (14.5 ± 28.1 mmol/L, p = 0.03). Overall, this study supports that a one-year nutritional intervention deployed early after a pediatric cancer diagnosis is associated with an improvement in the diets of children and adolescents.

Early Nutritional Intervention to Promote Healthy Eating Habits in Pediatric Oncology: A Feasibility Study.

This study aims to describe the feasibility of a nutritional intervention that promotes healthy eating habits early after cancer pediatric diagnosis in patients and their parents. Participants were recruited 4 to 12 weeks after cancer diagnosis as part of the VIE study. The one-year nutritional intervention included an initial evaluation and 6 follow-up visits every 2 months with a registered dietician. The feasibility assessment included rates of retention, participation, attendance, completion of study measures, and participants' engagement. A preliminary evaluation of the intervention's impact on the participants' dietary intakes was conducted. A total of 62 participants were included in the study (51.6% male, mean age = 8.5 years, mean time since diagnosis = 13.2 weeks). The retention and attendance rates were 72.6% and 71.3%, respectively. Attendance to follow-up visits declined over time, from 83.9% to 48.9%. A majority of participants had high participation (50.8%) and high engagement (56.4%). Measures of body-mass-index or weight-for-length ratio and dietary 24-h recalls were the procedures with the highest completion rates. Participants with refractory disease or relapse were less likely to complete the intervention. Post-intervention, participants (n = 21) had a lower sodium intake compared to the initial evaluation. These results suggest that a nutritional intervention that involves patients and parents early after a pediatric cancer diagnosis is feasible.

Needs, Barriers and Facilitators of Adolescents Participating in a Lifestyle Promotion Program in Oncology: Stakeholders, Adolescents and Parents' Perspective.

Treatments for adolescent cancer can cause debilitating side effects in the short- and long-term such as nausea and malnutrition but also cardiometabolic disturbances. Although the risk for cardiometabolic complications is greater for adolescents with cancer than younger ones, adolescents typically respond poorly to family-oriented health promotion programs. This study aims to assess the needs, barriers and facilitators to healthy lifestyle promotion interventions for adolescents with cancer and how to best adapt these interventions for them. Interviews were held with adolescents treated for cancer (n = 9) and parents (n = 6), focus groups were conducted with stakeholders working in oncology (n = 12) and self-report questionnaires were sent to stakeholders involved in a health promotion intervention (n = 6). At the time of interview, mean age of adolescent participants (40% female) was 17.0 ± 1.9 years (mean age at diagnosis: 14.6 ± 1.6 years). Verbatim and responses to questionnaires were coded and analyzed using qualitative methods. Stakeholder stated that adolescents with cancer need to access activities adapted to their age, to communicate with peers going through a similar experience, and to preserve their schooling and friendships. Barriers to intervention reported by adolescents, parents and stakeholders include lack of motivation, schedule conflicts, fatigue and treatment side effects. Some of the barriers mentioned by adolescents and parents include pain, post-surgery problems, school, physical deconditioning, and lack of time. Facilitators mentioned by adolescents and parents comprise trust in stakeholders' expertise, personalized approaches, scheduling flexibility. Stakeholders recommended to build trust in the relationship, favoring non-moralizing teachings, adapt interventions to adolescents' limited attention span and avoiding the use of long-term health benefits as a motivator.

Whole-transcriptome analysis in acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a report from the DFCI ALL Consortium Protocol 16-001.

The molecular hallmark of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is characterized by recurrent, prognostic genetic alterations, many of which are cryptic by conventional cytogenetics. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) is a powerful next-generation sequencing technology that can simultaneously identify cryptic gene rearrangements, sequence mutations and gene expression profiles in a single assay. We examined the feasibility and utility of incorporating RNA-seq into a prospective multicenter phase 3 clinical trial for children with newly diagnosed ALL. The Dana-Farber Cancer Institute ALL Consortium Protocol 16-001 enrolled 173 patients with ALL who consented to optional studies and had samples available for RNA-seq. RNA-seq identified at least 1 alteration in 157 patients (91%). Fusion detection was 100% concordant with results obtained from conventional cytogenetic analyses. An additional 56 gene fusions were identified by RNA-seq, many of which confer prognostic or therapeutic significance. Gene expression profiling enabled further molecular classification into the following B-cell ALL (B-ALL) subgroups: high hyperdiploid (n = 36), ETV6-RUNX1/-like (n = 31), TCF3-PBX1 (n = 7), KMT2A-rearranged (KMT2A-R; n = 5), intrachromosomal amplification of chromosome 21 (iAMP21) (n = 1), hypodiploid (n = 1), Philadelphia chromosome (Ph)-positive/Ph-like (n = 16), DUX4-R (n = 11), PAX5 alterations (PAX5 alt; n = 11), PAX5 P80R (n = 1), ZNF384-R (n = 4), NUTM1-R (n = 1), MEF2D-R (n = 1), and others (n = 10). RNA-seq identified 141 nonsynonymous mutations in 93 patients (54%); the most frequent were RAS-MAPK pathway mutations. Among 79 patients with both low-density array and RNA-seq data for the Philadelphia chromosome-like gene signature prediction, results were concordant in 74 patients (94%). In conclusion, RNA-seq identified several clinically relevant genetic alterations not detected by conventional methods, which supports the integration of this technology into front-line pediatric ALL trials. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT03020030.

Novel α1 and γ2 GABAA receptor subunit mutations in families with idiopathic generalized epilepsy.

Epilepsy is a heterogeneous neurological disease affecting approximately 50 million people worldwide. Genetic factors play an important role in both the onset and severity of the condition, with mutations in several ion-channel genes being implicated, including those encoding the GABA(A) receptor. Here, we evaluated the frequency of additional mutations in the GABA(A) receptor by direct sequencing of the complete open reading frame of the GABRA1 and GABRG2 genes from a cohort of French Canadian families with idiopathic generalized epilepsy (IGE). Using this approach, we have identified three novel mutations that were absent in over 400 control chromosomes. In GABRA1, two mutations were found, with the first being a 25-bp insertion that was associated with intron retention (i.e. K353delins18X) and the second corresponding to a single point mutation that replaced the aspartate 219 residue with an asparagine (i.e. D219N). Electrophysiological analysis revealed that K353delins18X and D219N altered GABA(A) receptor function by reducing the total surface expression of mature protein and/or by curtailing neurotransmitter effectiveness. Both defects would be expected to have a detrimental effect on inhibitory control of neuronal circuits. In contrast, the single point mutation identified in the GABRG2 gene, namely P83S, was indistinguishable from the wildtype subunit in terms of surface expression and functionality. This finding was all the more intriguing as the mutation exhibited a high degree of penetrance in three generations of one French Canadian family. Further experimentation will be required to understand how this mutation contributes to the occurrence of IGE in these individuals.

Disruption of AP1S1, causing a novel neurocutaneous syndrome, perturbs development of the skin and spinal cord.

Adaptor protein (AP) complexes regulate clathrin-coated vesicle assembly, protein cargo sorting, and vesicular trafficking between organelles in eukaryotic cells. Because disruption of the various subunits of the AP complexes is embryonic lethal in the majority of cases, characterization of their function in vivo is still lacking. Here, we describe the first mutation in the human AP1S1 gene, encoding the small subunit sigma1A of the AP-1 complex. This founder splice mutation, which leads to a premature stop codon, was found in four families with a unique syndrome characterized by mental retardation, enteropathy, deafness, peripheral neuropathy, ichthyosis, and keratodermia (MEDNIK). To validate the pathogenic effect of the mutation, we knocked down Ap1s1 expression in zebrafish using selective antisens morpholino oligonucleotides (AMO). The knockdown phenotype consisted of perturbation in skin formation, reduced pigmentation, and severe motility deficits due to impaired neural network development. Both neural and skin defects were rescued by co-injection of AMO with wild-type (WT) human AP1S1 mRNA, but not by co-injecting the truncated form of AP1S1, consistent with a loss-of-function effect of this mutation. Together, these results confirm AP1S1 as the gene responsible for MEDNIK syndrome and demonstrate a critical role of AP1S1 in development of the skin and spinal cord.

Rare coding variants in genes encoding GABAA receptors in genetic generalised epilepsies: an exome-based case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Genetic generalised epilepsy is the most common type of inherited epilepsy. Despite a high concordance rate of 80% in monozygotic twins, the genetic background is still poorly understood. We aimed to investigate the burden of rare genetic variants in genetic generalised epilepsy. METHODS: For this exome-based case-control study, we used three different genetic generalised epilepsy case cohorts and three independent control cohorts, all of European descent. Cases included in the study were clinically evaluated for genetic generalised epilepsy. Whole-exome sequencing was done for the discovery case cohort, a validation case cohort, and two independent control cohorts. The replication case cohort underwent targeted next-generation sequencing of the 19 known genes encoding subunits of GABAA receptors and was compared to the respective GABAA receptor variants of a third independent control cohort. Functional investigations were done with automated two-microelectrode voltage clamping in Xenopus laevis oocytes. FINDINGS: Statistical comparison of 152 familial index cases with genetic generalised epilepsy in the discovery cohort to 549 ethnically matched controls suggested an enrichment of rare missense (Nonsyn) variants in the ensemble of 19 genes encoding GABAA receptors in cases (odds ratio [OR] 2·40 [95% CI 1·41-4·10]; pNonsyn=0·0014, adjusted pNonsyn=0·019). Enrichment for these genes was validated in a whole-exome sequencing cohort of 357 sporadic and familial genetic generalised epilepsy cases and 1485 independent controls (OR 1·46 [95% CI 1·05-2·03]; pNonsyn=0·0081, adjusted pNonsyn=0·016). Comparison of genes encoding GABAA receptors in the independent replication cohort of 583 familial and sporadic genetic generalised epilepsy index cases, based on candidate-gene panel sequencing, with a third independent control cohort of 635 controls confirmed the overall enrichment of rare missense variants for 15 GABAA receptor genes in cases compared with controls (OR 1·46 [95% CI 1·02-2·08]; pNonsyn=0·013, adjusted pNonsyn=0·027). Functional studies for two selected genes (GABRB2 and GABRA5) showed significant loss-of-function effects with reduced current amplitudes in four of seven tested variants compared with wild-type receptors. INTERPRETATION: Functionally relevant variants in genes encoding GABAA receptor subunits constitute a significant risk factor for genetic generalised epilepsy. Examination of the role of specific gene groups and pathways can disentangle the complex genetic architecture of genetic generalised epilepsy. FUNDING: EuroEPINOMICS (European Science Foundation through national funding organisations), Epicure and EpiPGX (Sixth Framework Programme and Seventh Framework Programme of the European Commission), Research Unit FOR2715 (German Research Foundation and Luxembourg National Research Fund).

Expanding the clinical phenotype associated with ELOVL4 mutation: study of a large French-Canadian family with autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxia and erythrokeratodermia.

IMPORTANCE: The autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a complex group of neurodegenerative disorders with significant genetic heterogeneity. Despite the identification of 20 SCA genes, the cause of the disorder in a significant proportion of families with SCA remains unexplained. In 1972, a French-Canadian family segregating a combination of SCA and erythrokeratodermia variabilis (EKV) in an autosomal dominant fashion was described. OBJECTIVE: To map and identify the causative gene in this large family with SCA and EKV using a combination of linkage analysis and whole-exome sequencing. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: A total of 32 individuals from the family have undergone complete neurologic and dermatologic examinations. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Mutations in ELOVL4 have been reported in families with macular degeneration. Recently, homozygous mutations were found in patients with ichthyosis, spastic paraplegia, and severe neurodevelopmental defects. In the present study, we report on a heterozygote mutation in ELOVL4 in affected individuals from the family with SCA and EKV. The mutation segregates with a milder phenotype consisting of early-onset patches of erythema and hyperkeratosis, as well as SCA manifesting in the fourth or fifth decade of life. RESULTS: We describe the mapping and the identification of a c.504G>C transversion in ELOVL4 resulting in the p.L168F substitution. We also provide clinical characterization of the phenotypes in 19 mutation carriers. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: We report, to our knowledge, the first mutation in ELOVL4 that is associated with SCA and EKV. This gene encodes a member of the elongase family, which is responsible for the elongation of very long-chain fatty acids (at least 26 carbons). These fatty acids participate in a wide variety of physiological functions, including skin barrier formation and peroxisome ß-oxidation. Overall, these results provide additional insight into the pathogenesis of these complex neurodegenerative disorders.

Variable continental distribution of polymorphisms in the coding regions of DNA-repair genes.

DNA-repair pathways are critical for maintaining the integrity of the genetic material by protecting against mutations due to exposure-induced damages or replication errors. Polymorphisms in the corresponding genes may be relevant in genetic epidemiology by modifying individual cancer susceptibility or therapeutic response. We report data on the population distribution of potentially functional variants in XRCC1, APEX1, ERCC2, ERCC4, hMLH1, and hMSH3 genes among groups representing individuals of European, Middle Eastern, African, Southeast Asian and North American descent. The data indicate little interpopulation differentiation in some of these polymorphisms and typical FST values ranging from 10 to 17% at others. Low FST was observed in APEX1 and hMSH3 exon 23 in spite of their relatively high minor allele frequencies, which could suggest the effect of balancing selection. In XRCC1, hMSH3 exon 21 and hMLH1 Africa clusters either with Middle East and Europe or with Southeast Asia, which could be related to the demographic history of human populations, whereby human migrations and genetic drift rather than selection would account for the observed differences.