Altered Profile of Circulating Endothelial-Derived Microparticles in Ventilator-Induced Lung Injury.

OBJECTIVES: Pulmonary endothelial cell injury is central to the pathophysiology of acute lung injury. Mechanical ventilation can cause endothelial disruption and injury, even in the absence of preexisting inflammation. Platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 is a transmembrane protein connecting adjacent endothelial cells. We hypothesized that injurious mechanical ventilation will increase circulating lung endothelial-derived microparticles, defined as microparticles positive for platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1, which could serve as potential biomarkers and mediators of ventilator-induced lung injury. DESIGN: Prospective randomized, controlled, animal investigation. SETTING: A hospital preclinical animal laboratory. SUBJECTS: Forty-eight Sprague-Dawley rats. INTERVENTIONS: Animals were randomly allocated to one of the three following ventilatory protocols for 4 hours: spontaneous breathing (control group), mechanical ventilation with low tidal volume (6 mL/kg), and mechanical ventilation with high tidal volume (20 mL/kg). In both mechanical ventilation groups, positive end-expiratory pressure of 2 cm H2O was applied. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We analyzed histologic lung damage, gas exchange, wet-to-dry lung weight ratio, serum cytokines levels, circulating endothelial-derived microparticles, platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 lung protein content, and immunohistochemistry. When compared with low-tidal volume mechanical ventilation, high-tidal volume ventilation increased lung edema score and caused gas-exchange deterioration. These changes were associated with a marked increased of circulating endothelial-derived microparticles and a reduction of platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 protein levels in the high-tidal volume lungs (p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: There is an endothelial-derived microparticle profile associated with disease-specific features of ventilator-induced lung injury. This profile could serve both as a biomarker of acute lung injury and, potentially, as a mediator of systemic propagation of pulmonary inflammatory response.

Tryptase is involved in the development of early ventilator-induced pulmonary fibrosis in sepsis-induced lung injury.

INTRODUCTION: Most patients with sepsis and acute lung injury require mechanical ventilation to improve oxygenation and facilitate organ repair. Mast cells are important in response to infection and resolution of tissue injury. Since tryptase secreted from mast cells has been associated with tissue fibrosis, we hypothesized that tryptase would be involved in the early development of ventilator-induced pulmonary fibrosis in a clinically relevant model of sepsis-induced lung injury. METHODS: Prospective, randomized, controlled animal study using Sprague-Dawley rats. Sepsis was induced by cecal ligation and perforation. Animals were randomized to spontaneous breathing or two ventilatory strategies for 4 h: protective ventilation with tidal volume (VT) = 6 ml/kg plus 10 cmH2O positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) or injurious ventilation with VT = 20 ml/kg plus 2 cmH2O PEEP. Healthy, non-ventilated animals served as non-septic controls. We studied the following end points: histology, serum cytokine levels, hydroxyproline content, tryptase and proteinase-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2) protein level in lung homogenates, and tryptase and PAR-2 immunohistochemical localization in the lungs. RESULTS: All septic animals developed acute lung injury. Animals ventilated with high VT had a significant increase of pulmonary fibrosis, hydroxyproline content, tryptase and PAR-2 protein levels compared to septic controls (P <0.0001). However, protective ventilation attenuated sepsis-induced lung injury and decreased lung tryptase and PAR-2 protein levels. Immunohistochemical staining confirmed the presence of tryptase and PAR-2 in the lungs. CONCLUSIONS: Mechanical ventilation modified tryptase and PAR-2 in injured lungs. Increased levels of these proteins were associated with development of sepsis and ventilator-induced pulmonary fibrosis early in the course of sepsis-induced lung injury.

Tunneled catheters with taurolidine-citrate-heparin lock solution significantly improve the inflammatory profile of hemodialysis patients.

Mortality and morbidity are significantly higher among patients with dialysis catheters, which has been associated with chronic activation of the immune system. We hypothesized that bacteria colonizing the catheter lumen trigger an inflammatory response. We aimed to evaluate the inflammatory profile of hemodialysis patients before and after locking catheters with an antimicrobial lock solution. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) were measured in serum, and levels of mRNA gene expression of IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α were analyzed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Samples were obtained at baseline and again after 3 months' use of taurolidine-citrate-heparin lock solution (TCHLS) in 31 hemodialysis patients. The rate of catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSI) was 1.08 per 1,000 catheter-days in the heparin period and 0.04 in the TCHLS period (P = 0.023). Compared with the baseline data, serum levels of hs-CRP and IL-6 showed median percent reductions of 18.1% and 25.2%, respectively (P < 0.01), without significant changes in TNF-α or IL-10 levels. Regarding cytokine gene expression in PBMC, the median mRNA expression levels of TNF-α and IL-6 decreased by 20% (P < 0.05) and 19.7% (P = 0.01), respectively, without changes in IL-10 expression levels. The use of TCHLS to maintain the catheter lumen sterility significantly reduces the incidence of CRBSI and improves the inflammatory profile in hemodialysis patients with tunneled catheters. Further studies are needed to evaluate the potential beneficial effects on clinical outcomes.

Soluble platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1, a biomarker of ventilator-induced lung injury.

INTRODUCTION: Endothelial cell injury is an important component of acute lung injury. Platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM1) is a transmembrane protein that connects endothelial cells to one another and can be detected as a soluble, truncated protein (sPECAM1) in serum. We hypothesized that injurious mechanical ventilation (MV) leads to shedding of PECAM1 from lung endothelial cells resulting in increasing sPECAM1 levels in the systemic circulation. METHODS: We studied 36 Sprague-Dawley rats in two prospective, randomized, controlled studies (healthy and septic) using established animal models of ventilator-induced lung injury. Animals (n = 6 in each group) were randomized to spontaneous breathing or two MV strategies: low tidal volume (VT) (6 ml/kg) and high-VT (20 ml/kg) on 2 cmH2O of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP). In low-VT septic animals, 10 cmH2O of PEEP was applied. We performed pulmonary histological and physiological evaluation and measured lung PECAM1 protein content and serum sPECAM1 levels after four hours ventilation period. RESULTS: High-VT MV caused severe lung injury in healthy and septic animals, and decreased lung PECAM1 protein content (P < 0.001). Animals on high-VT had a four- to six-fold increase of mean sPECAM1 serum levels than the unventilated counterpart (35.4 ± 10.4 versus 5.6 ± 1.7 ng/ml in healthy rats; 156.8 ± 47.6 versus 35.6 ± 12.6 ng/ml in septic rats) (P < 0.0001). Low-VT MV prevented these changes. Levels of sPECAM1 in healthy animals on high-VT MV paralleled the sPECAM1 levels of non-ventilated septic animals. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that circulating sPECAM1 may represent a promising biomarker for the detection and monitoring of ventilator-induced lung injury.

Mechanical ventilation modulates TLR4 and IRAK-3 in a non-infectious, ventilator-induced lung injury model.

BACKGROUND: Previous experimental studies have shown that injurious mechanical ventilation has a direct effect on pulmonary and systemic immune responses. How these responses are propagated or attenuated is a matter of speculation. The goal of this study was to determine the contribution of mechanical ventilation in the regulation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling and interleukin-1 receptor associated kinase-3 (IRAK-3) during experimental ventilator-induced lung injury. METHODS: Prospective, randomized, controlled animal study using male, healthy adults Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 300-350 g. Animals were anesthetized and randomized to spontaneous breathing and to two different mechanical ventilation strategies for 4 hours: high tidal volume (VT) (20 ml/kg) and low VT (6 ml/kg). Histological evaluation, TLR2, TLR4, IRAK3 gene expression, IRAK-3 protein levels, inhibitory kappa B alpha (IkappaBalpha), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-6 (IL6) gene expression in the lungs and TNF-alpha and IL-6 protein serum concentrations were analyzed. RESULTS: High VT mechanical ventilation for 4 hours was associated with a significant increase of TLR4 but not TLR2, a significant decrease of IRAK3 lung gene expression and protein levels, a significant decrease of IkappaBalpha, and a higher lung expression and serum concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines. CONCLUSIONS: The current study supports an interaction between TLR4 and IRAK-3 signaling pathway for the over-expression and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines during ventilator-induced lung injury. Our study also suggests that injurious mechanical ventilation may elicit an immune response that is similar to that observed during infections.

A common haplotype of the LBP gene predisposes to severe sepsis.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether common variants across the LBP gene contribute to the development of severe sepsis. Sepsis is the leading cause of multiple system organ dysfunction and death in critically ill patients. The lipopolysaccharide-binding protein is an acute-phase protein that plays a dominant role in the genesis of sepsis by initiating signal transduction pathways leading to the activation of the inflammatory host response. DESIGN: Prospectively enrolled case-control study of adults with severe sepsis. SETTING: A network of intensive care units. PATIENTS: We enrolled 175 patients meeting international definition criteria for severe sepsis and 357 population-based controls for comparison. INTERVENTIONS: Genotyping of the LBP gene was performed and disease association was tested. Serum lipopolysaccharide-binding protein levels were measured in patients and related to genetic variants. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A haplotype window analysis revealed that a common 4-SNP risk haplotype from the 5'-flanking region of the LBP gene, comprising positions -1978 to -763 from the transcription start site, was strongly associated with susceptibility to severe sepsis. Risk haplotype homozygous carriers had an increased risk for severe sepsis (odds ratio = 2.21; 95% confidence interval = 1.39-3.51; unadjusted p < .001; adjusted p < .025). Mean serum lipopolysaccharide-binding protein levels from inclusion to 7th day were significantly higher in homozygous carriers patients (130.1 [102.9-164.5] and 98.9 [79.7-122.8] microg/mL, respectively) than in noncarriers (101.6 [87.9-117.5] and 58.7 [51.4-67.2] microg/mL, respectively) (p = .046). CONCLUSIONS: This study strongly supports the involvement of LBP gene variants in severe sepsis susceptibility and reinforces the merit of further exploration of the role of lipopolysaccharide-binding protein in sepsis.

Pathogenic perspectives for the role of inflammation in diabetic nephropathy.

Diabetes and its complications have become a public health problem. One of the most important complications is diabetic nephropathy, which is nowadays the main cause of chronic renal failure. In spite of our greater understanding of this complication, the intimate mechanisms leading to the development and progression of renal injury are not well understood. New perspectives in activated innate immunity and inflammation appear to be relevant factors in the pathogenesis of diabetes. Moreover, different inflammatory molecules, including adipokines, Toll-like receptors, chemokines, adhesion molecules and pro-inflammatory cytokines, may be critical factors in the development of microvascular diabetic complications, including nephropathy. This new pathogenic perspective leads to important therapeutic considerations, with new pathogenic pathways becoming important therapeutic targets that can be translated into clinical treatments for diabetic nephropathy.

Experimental ventilator-induced lung injury: exacerbation by positive end-expiratory pressure.

BACKGROUND: Previous experimental studies of ventilator-induced lung injury have shown that positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) is protective. The authors hypothesized that the application of PEEP during volume-controlled ventilation with a moderately high tidal volume (VT) in previously healthy in vivo rats does not attenuate ventilator-induced lung injury if the peak airway pressure markedly increases during the application of PEEP. METHODS: Sixty healthy, male Sprague-Dawley rats were anesthetized and randomized to be mechanically ventilated for 4 h at (1) VT of 6 ml/kg, (2) VT of 20 ml/kg, or (3) VT of 20 ml/kg plus 10 cm H2O of PEEP. Peak airway pressures, gas exchange, histologic evaluation, mortality, total lung tissue cytokine gene expression, and serum cytokine concentrations were analyzed. RESULTS: Peak airway pressures exceeded 30 cm H2O with high VT plus PEEP. All lungs ventilated with high VT had perivascular edema and inflammatory infiltrates. In addition, those ventilated with PEEP had small hemorrhages foci. Five animals from the high VT plus PEEP group died (P = 0.020). Animals ventilated with high VT (with or without PEEP) had a substantial increase in serum interleukin-6 (P = 0.0002), and those ventilated with high VT plus PEEP had a 5.5-fold increase in systemic levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (P = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: In contrast to previous reports, PEEP exacerbated lung damage and contributed to fatal outcome in an in vivo, mild overdistension model of ventilator-induced lung injury in previously healthy rats. That is, the addition of high PEEP to a constant large VT causes injury in previously healthy animals.

Association of tumor necrosis factor-alpha with early target organ damage in newly diagnosed patients with essential hypertension.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the relationship between inflammatory parameters [high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and urinary TNF-alpha] with subclinical cardiac and renal markers of early target organ damage (TOD) in essential hypertension. METHODS: Preclinical TOD [left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and microalbuminuria (MAB)] was evaluated in 40 newly diagnosed never-treated patients with essential hypertension. Serum and urinary TNF-alpha and hs-CRP were measured as inflammatory parameters. Twenty-one BMI-matched and sex-matched normotensive, healthy individuals were included as control group. RESULTS: The serum levels of hs-CRP and the urinary TNF-alpha excretion were higher in hypertensive patients with MAB, whereas patients with LVH presented higher levels of urinary TNF-alpha. The only difference between hypertensive patients without TOD and healthy controls was the higher urinary excretion of TNF-alpha. Partial correlation analysis showed a significant association between urinary albumin excretion (UAE) and systolic blood pressure (r=0.62, P<0.0001), hs-CRP (r=0.64, P<0.001), urinary TNF-alpha (r=0.55, P=0.001) and Cornell product (r=0.33, P<0.05), whereas the Cornell product was related to UAE (r=0.34, P<0.05), urinary TNF-alpha (r=0.45, P<0.01), and hs-CRP (r=0.32, P<0.05). Multiple regression analysis demonstrated that the parameters independently correlated with UAE were mean blood pressure, Cornell product, hs-CRP and urinary TNF-alpha (adjusted R2=0.77, P<0.001), whereas UAE, urinary TNF-alpha and hs-CRP were independently correlated with Cornell product (adjusted R2=0.66, P<0.001). Multiple logistic regression analysis with TOD as the dependent variable showed that hs-CRP [2.24 (1.17-4.28), P<0.05] and urinary TNF-alpha [1.21 (1.02-1.44), P<0.05] were independently related to TOD. CONCLUSION: Urinary TNF-alpha is independently correlated with UAE and Cornell product in essential hypertension, suggesting that inflammation may participate in the development of TOD. In addition, urinary excretion of TNF-alpha might be an early marker of preclinical TOD in hypertensive patients. Finally, these results may be a basis to study the effect of the blockade of TNF-alpha activity on the development and progression of TOD in essential hypertension.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme insertion/deletion polymorphism is not associated with susceptibility and outcome in sepsis and acute respiratory distress syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: The insertion/deletion (I/D) of a 289 base pair Alu repeat sequence polymorphism in the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene (ACE) has been shown to predict susceptibility and outcome in the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). We hypothesized that the I/D polymorphism also confers susceptibility to sepsis and is a predisposing factor for morbidity and mortality of patients with severe sepsis. DESIGN AND SETTING: Case-control study including 212 consecutive patients fulfilling criteria for severe sepsis admitted to a Spanish network of postsurgical and critical care units, and 364 population-based controls. Susceptibility to severe sepsis was evaluated as primary outcome; mortality in severe sepsis, susceptibility to sepsis-induced ARDS, and mortality in sepsis-induced ARDS were examined as secondary outcomes. An additive model of inheritance in which patients were classified into three genotype groups (II, ID, and DD) was used for association testing. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Genotype and allele frequencies of I/D were distributed similarly in all septic, ARDS, and non-ARDS patients and in population-based controls. ACE I/D polymorphism was not associated with severe sepsis susceptibility or mortality. The ACE I/D polymorphism was associated neither with sepsis-induced ARDS susceptibility (p=0.895) or mortality (p=0.950). These results remained nonsignificant when adjusted for other covariates using multiple logistic regression analysis or Kaplan-Meier estimates of 28-day survival. CONCLUSIONS: Our data do not support an association of the ACE gene I/D polymorphism with susceptibility or mortality in severe sepsis or with sepsis-induced ARDS in Spanish patients.

Influence of renal involvement on peripheral blood mononuclear cell expression behaviour of tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 in type 2 diabetic patients.

BACKGROUND: Type 2 diabetes is associated with a high cardiovascular risk, which is even increased if renal damage is superimposed. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and pro-inflammatory cytokines are key factors linking type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis. We investigated the influence of renal damage on serum, urinary and PBMCs expression behavior of TNF-alpha and IL-6 in these patients. METHODS: PBMCs were isolated by density gradient centrifugation (Ficoll-Paque method) from fasting blood samples of 22 non-diabetic control subjects and 78 diabetic patients with normal renal function and different stages of diabetic nephropathy (18 with normoalbuminuria, 29 with microalbuminuria and 31 with macroalbuminuria). Expression levels of TNF-alpha and IL-6 were analyzed by real-time quantitative RT-PCR. Serum and urinary TNF-alpha and IL-6 concentrations were measured by a solid-phase, chemiluminescent immunometric assay. RESULTS: The mean percent increases in the serum and urinary levels of TNF-alpha and IL-6 in diabetic patients with respect to control subjects were 176% (P < 0.0001), 250% (P < 0.0001), 114% (P < 0.0001) and 39.6% (P = 0.01), respectively. The mRNA expression level of TNF-alpha was higher by 68.8% (P < 0.001) and IL-6 mRNA levels were higher by 64.1% (P < 0.001) with respect to non-diabetic controls. TNF-alpha mRNA expression in patients with macroalbuminuria was higher by 84.8% with respect to subjects with normalbuminuria (P < 0.001) and by 29% with respect to individuals with microalbuminuria (P < 0.05). Likewise, microalbuminuric patients showed a 44.5% increase in TNF-alpha mRNA expression compared to subjects with normoalbuminuria (P < 0.05). Concerning IL-6, the mRNA expression levels of this cytokine was higher by 63.1% with respect to normoalbuminuric subjects (P < 0.01), and by 23.1% with respect to patients with microalbuminuria (P < 0.05). However, with respect to controls, diabetic patients with normoalbuminuria had similar serum TNF-alpha and urinary excretion of IL-6, without any differences in the mRNA expression levels of these cytokines in PBMCs. Partial correlation and multiple regression analysis using TNF-alpha and IL-6 mRNA levels as the dependent variables showed that urinary albumin excretion (UAE) was direct and independently associated with the expression profile of these pro-inflammatory cytokines in PBMCs. CONCLUSIONS: These data show for the first time the relationship between inflammatory activation of PBMCs (reflected by enhanced mRNA expression of TNF-alpha and IL-6) and renal involvement (reflected by increased UAE) in type 2 diabetic patients. These results provide potential insights for the increased inflammation, accelerated atherosclerosis and cardiovascular risk associated with nephropathy in type 2 diabetes.

Effects of pentoxifylline administration on urinary N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase excretion in type 2 diabetic patients: a short-term, prospective, randomized study.

BACKGROUND: Tubulointerstitial injury is a major feature of diabetic nephropathy and an important predictor of renal dysfunction. In 45 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM), we prospectively analyzed urinary excretion of N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase (NAG), a marker of tubular renal damage; the potential relationship with urinary protein excretion; and effects of pentoxifylline (PTF) administration. METHODS: Forty-five patients with type 2 DM initially were compared with 15 healthy controls matched for age and sex. After randomization, PTF (1,200 mg/d) was administered for 4 months to 30 patients and results were compared with data from a control group (n = 15). RESULTS: Proteinuria and urinary NAG excretion were significantly greater in patients with DM with respect to healthy controls. Before PTF administration, baseline parameters were similar in both groups of patients with DM. At the end of the study, urinary protein excretion and NAG-creatinine ratios decreased in the active group from 920 +/- 522 mg/d and 14.3 +/- 16.9 U/g to 803 +/- 523 mg/d (P < 0.001) and 10.5 +/- 9.3 U/g (P < 0.05), respectively. Conversely, proteinuria and urinary NAG excretion did not change in the control group. Regression analysis showed that urinary NAG excretion was significantly associated with duration of DM (r = 0.61; P < 0.001) and proteinuria (r = 0.51; P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Urinary NAG excretion is elevated in patients with type 2 DM compared with healthy individuals and increases as nephropathy progresses. PTF administration is effective in reducing proteinuria and urinary NAG excretion in these patients. These findings suggest that PTF may have beneficial effects on tubulointerstitial damage in diabetic kidney disease.

Positive end-expiratory pressure modulates local and systemic inflammatory responses in a sepsis-induced lung injury model.

OBJECTIVE: Previous animal studies have shown that certain modes of mechanical ventilation (MV) can injure the lungs. Most of those studies were performed with models that differ from clinical causes of respiratory failure. We examined the effects of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) in the setting of a clinically relevant, in vivo animal model of sepsis-induced acute lung injury ventilated with low or injurious tidal volume. METHODS: Septic male Sprague-Dawley rats were anesthetized and randomized to spontaneous breathing or four different strategies of MV for 3 h at low (6 ml/kg) or high (20 ml/kg) tidal volume (V(T)) with zero PEEP or PEEP above inflection point in the pressure-volume curve. Sepsis was induced by cecal ligation and perforation. Mortality rates, pathological evaluation, lung tissue cytokine gene expression, and plasma cytokine concentrations were analyzed in all experimental groups. RESULTS: Lung damage, cytokine synthesis and release, and mortality rates were significantly affected by the method of MV in the presence of sepsis. PEEP above the inflection point significantly attenuated lung damage and decreased mortality during 3 h of ventilation with low V(T) (25% vs. 0%) and increased lung damage and mortality in the high V(T) group (19% vs. 50%). PEEP attenuated lung cytokine gene expression and plasma concentrations during mechanical ventilation with low V(T). CONCLUSIONS: The use of a PEEP level above the inflection point in a sepsis-induced acute lung injury animal model modulates the pulmonary and systemic inflammatory responses associated with sepsis and decreases mortality during 3 h of MV.

Effects of atorvastatin on lipid profile and non-traditional cardiovascular risk factors in diabetic patients on hemodialysis.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Dyslipidemia and non-traditional cardiovascular (CV) risk factors, such as lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)), homocysteine, oxidative stress and inflammation, are important determinants in the increased CV risk of hemodialysis (HD) patients. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effects of atorvastatin on these parameters in one of the groups with the highest CV risk: diabetic patients with end-stage renal disease under HD therapy. METHODS: Twenty maintenance HD diabetic patients (mean age 64 +/- 10 years, mean time on HD 25 +/- 11 months) with low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) >2.59 mmol/l received atorvastatin (10 mg/day) for 4 months. Lipid profile, including total cholesterol (TC), LDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides (TG), apolipoproteins A1 and B (Apo-A and Apo-B), and the non-traditional risk factors Lp(a), homocysteine, autoantibodies against oxidized LDL-C (anti-LDLox), total antioxidant status (TAS), and high sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), were measured at baseline and at the end of the study. Safety was assessed by clinical and laboratory (liver and muscle enzymes) monitoring once a month. RESULTS: Mean percent reductions for TC, LDL-C and TG were 18.5% (p < 0.001), 22% (p < 0.001) and 19% (p < 0.01), respectively. The ratios of TC/HDL-C and LDL-C/HDL-C decreased after treatment (p < 0.05), whereas the ratios of LDL-C/Apo-B (p < 0.01) and Apo-A/Apo-B (p < 0.001) increased. No significant changes were observed in HDL-C. Concerning the non-traditional risk factors, levels of homocysteine, Lp(a), anti-LDLox and TAS did not change significantly. However, hs-CRP decreased from 5.4 (range 0.9-67.8) to 2.3 mg/l (range 0.4-21) (p < 0.01), whereas a concomitant increase in serum albumin was observed (from 38 +/- 2 to 40 +/- 1.7 g/l, p < 0.01). At baseline, hs-CRP was inversely associated with HDL-C and Apo-A, and directly related to Lp(a). The change in hs-CRP was inversely associated with the change of HDL-C, whereas a direct correlation was found with the change of TG. CONCLUSIONS: Atorvastatin administration to diabetic patients on HD is associated with improvement of lipid profile and reduction of hs-CRP. These effects may be critical for the reduction of CV risk and mortality in HD population.

Pentoxifylline for renoprotection in diabetic nephropathy: the PREDIAN study. Rationale and basal results.

STATEMENTS OF THE PROBLEM: Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the main cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Renin-angiotensin system (RAS) blockade is the standard of care; however, a significant proportion of patients progress to ESRD. Pentoxifylline (PTF) possesses properties suggesting potential renoprotective efficacy. The aim of the Pentoxifylline for Renoprotection in Diabetic Nephropathy (PREDIAN) study is to test the efficacy of PTF addition to RAS blockade on the progression of DN. Here we report the study design and the baseline patient characteristics. METHODS: This is an investigator-initiated, single-center, prospective, randomized, controlled, clinical trial without any commercial interest, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation. One hundred and sixty-nine type 2 diabetic patients with Stage 3 and 4 chronic kidney disease (CKD) were randomized to a control group (n=87) or an active group (n=82), which will receive PTF (1200 mg/day) for 24 months. The primary outcome measure is the difference in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) between the groups at the end of the study. RESULTS: The baseline characteristics of the subjects are as follows: 116 patients (68.6%) with Stage 3 CKD and 53 (31.3%) Stage 4 CKD, age 69±9 years, duration of diabetes 15±3 years, eGFR 37±12 ml/min per 1.73 m(2), albuminuria 1.39±1.16 g/day, blood pressure 142±8/86±8 mmHg. Inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, and interleukin-10) and polymorphisms of the coding genes for these molecules are studied. CONCLUSIONS: The PREDIAN study will provide evidence on the renoprotective benefit of PTF in addition to interventions of proven efficacy (RAS blockade) in DN.

Mechanical ventilation modulates Toll-like receptor signaling pathway in a sepsis-induced lung injury model.

BACKGROUND: Experimental and clinical studies on sepsis have demonstrated activation of the innate immune response following the initial host-bacterial interaction. In addition, mechanical ventilation (MV) can induce a pulmonary inflammatory response. How these two responses interact when present simultaneously remains to be elucidated. We hypothesized that MV modulates innate host response during sepsis by influencing Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling. DESIGN: Prospective, randomized, controlled animal study. SUBJECTS: Male, septic Sprague-Dawley rats. INTERVENTIONS: Sepsis was induced by cecal ligation and perforation. At 18 h, surviving animals had the cecum removed and were randomized to spontaneous breathing or two strategies of MV for 4 h: high (20 ml/kg) tidal volume (V (T)) with no positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) versus low V (T) (6 ml/kg) plus 10 cmH(2)O PEEP. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Histological evaluation, TLR-2, TLR-4, inhibitory kappaB alpha (IkappaBalpha), interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase-3 (IRAK-3) gene expression, protein levels and immunohistochemical lung localization, inflammatory cytokines gene expression, and protein serum concentrations were analyzed. MV with low V (T) plus PEEP attenuated sepsis-associated TLR-4 activation, and produced a significant decrease of IRAK-3 gene expression and protein levels, a significant increase of IkappaBalpha, and a decrease in lung gene expression and serum levels of cytokines. High-V (T) MV caused a significant increase of TLR-4 and IRAK-3 protein levels, lung and systemic cytokines, and mortality, and a significant decrease of IkappaBalpha. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest a novel mechanism that could partially explain how MV modulates the innate immune response in the lung by interfering with cellular signaling pathways that are activated in response to pathogens.

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha as a therapeutic target for diabetic nephropathy.

Activation of innate immunity with the subsequent development of a chronic low-grade inflammatory response is now recognized as a critical factor in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus and diabetic complications, including diabetic nephropathy. In the setting of diabetic nephropathy, there is now evidence of the relevant contribution of pro-inflammatory cytokines, with special participation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha). This new pathogenic perspective leads to new therapeutic implications derived from modulation of inflammation and inflammatory cytokines. Experimental studies have shown the beneficial renal actions derived from TNF-alpha inhibition with the use of soluble TNF-alpha receptor fusion proteins, chimeric monoclonal antibodies and pentoxifylline (PTF). Clinical application of this strategy is nowadays limited to PTF administration, which has demonstrated significant beneficial effects in patients with diabetic nephropathy. Overall, these studies indicate that inhibition of TNF-alpha might be an efficacious treatment for renal disease secondary to diabetes mellitus.

Mineral metabolism and inflammation in chronic kidney disease patients: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Mineral metabolism abnormalities and inflammation are concerns in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Interrelationships among these parameters have not been analyzed. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, AND MEASUREMENTS: The study included 133 patients with CKD not on dialysis and not receiving calcium (Ca) supplements, phosphate binders, or vitamin D. Estimated GFR (eGFR) was 34.1 +/- 6.8 ml/min/1.73 m(2); 107 participants had stage 3 CKD, and 26 had stage 4. RESULTS: Patients were classified by tertiles of Ca, phosphorus (P), Ca-P product (Ca x P), and parathyroid hormone (PTH). After adjustment for age, gender, and eGFR, the levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and IL-6 (IL-6) of the third tertile of P, Ca x P, and PTH were significantly higher than those of the first and second tertiles. Serum P and Ca x P directly correlated with CRP and IL-6, whereas HDL-cholesterol and eGFR inversely correlated with the levels of the inflammatory parameters. After partial correlation analysis, the previous associations between CRP and eGFR, and serum P, as well as the relationship between IL-6 and eGFR, and serum P, remained significant. Multiple regression analysis demonstrated that eGFR and serum P were independently associated with CRP and IL-6. Finally, logistic regression analysis using the presence/absence of an inflammatory state as the dependent variable showed that eGFR was a protective factor, whereas serum P was an independent risk factor for the presence of an inflammatory state. CONCLUSIONS: Elevated serum P might play a role in the development of inflammation in CKD.

Serum lipopolysaccharide binding protein levels predict severity of lung injury and mortality in patients with severe sepsis.

BACKGROUND: There is a need for biomarkers insuring identification of septic patients at high-risk for death. We performed a prospective, multicenter, observational study to investigate the time-course of lipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP) serum levels in patients with severe sepsis and examined whether serial serum levels of LBP could be used as a marker of outcome. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: LBP serum levels at study entry, at 48 hours and at day-7 were measured in 180 patients with severe sepsis. Data regarding the nature of infections, disease severity, development of acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and intensive care unit (ICU) outcome were recorded. LBP serum levels were similar in survivors and non-survivors at study entry (117.4+/-75.7 microg/mL vs. 129.8+/-71.3 microg/mL, P = 0.249) but there were significant differences at 48 hours (77.2+/-57.0 vs. 121.2+/-73.4 microg/mL, P<0.0001) and at day-7 (64.7+/-45.8 vs. 89.7+/-61.1 microg/ml, p = 0.017). At 48 hours, LBP levels were significantly higher in ARDS patients than in ALI patients (112.5+/-71.8 microg/ml vs. 76.6+/-55.9 microg/ml, P = 0.0001). An increase of LBP levels at 48 hours was associated with higher mortality (odds ratio 3.97; 95%CI: 1.84-8.56; P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Serial LBP serum measurements may offer a clinically useful biomarker for identification of patients with severe sepsis having the worst outcomes and the highest probability of developing sepsis-induced ARDS.

A CXCL2 polymorphism is associated with better outcomes in patients with severe sepsis.

OBJECTIVE: Several studies have implicated the CXCL2 chemokine as a mediator in the development of sepsis. We hypothesized that a tandem repeat polymorphism (AC)n in the CXCL2 gene, previously associated with susceptibility to severe sepsis, contributes to morbidity and mortality in severe sepsis. DESIGN: Prospective, observational, genetic study of septic patients. SETTING: A network of Spanish postsurgical and critical care units. PATIENTS: A total of 183 critically ill patients fulfilling the International Sepsis Criteria for severe sepsis. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Patients were classified into three groups according to the presence of compound 24 +/- 1 (AC) repeat genotypes: homozygote 24 +/- 1 carriers (HC group), heterozygote 24 +/- 1 carriers (HTC), and non 24 +/- 1 carriers (NC group). Mortality, development of acute respiratory distress syndrome, and number of failing organs were determined for each group. Overall mortality was 46.4%. HC patients had a lower mortality (39.9%) than HTC (52.2%) and NC (72.7%) patients (trend test p = .018). This difference remained significant when using a multiple logistic regression analysis (p = .035). The presence of population stratification was ruled out, since 20 independent genomic control markers demonstrated homogeneity among groups. An exploratory analysis of the effect of acute respiratory distress syndrome on mortality showed a relative risk of 2.60 in the HC group (p = .0004), while in the nonhomozygote carriers (NHC) group the relative risk was 3.34 (p = .0001). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that a tandem repeat polymorphism (AC)n at position -665 in the CXCL2 gene may be an independent predictor of mortality for severe sepsis. Additional studies are needed to confirm these results.