Chronic neuropathic pain severity is determined by lesion level in aquaporin 4-antibody-positive myelitis.

IMPORTANCE: Chronic, intractable neuropathic pain is a common and debilitating consequence of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) myelitis, with no satisfactory treatment; few studies have yet to explore its aetiology. OBJECTIVE: To establish if myelitis-associated chronic pain in NMOSD is related to the craniocaudal location of spinal cord lesions. METHOD: (1) Retrospective cohort of 76 aquaporin 4-antibody (AQP4-Ab)-positive patients from Oxford and Liverpool's national NMOSD clinics, assessing current pain and craniocaudal location of cord lesion contemporary to pain onset. (2) Focused prospective study of 26 AQP4-Ab-positive Oxford patients, a subset of the retrospective cohort, assessing current craniocaudal lesion location and current pain. RESULTS: Patients with isolated thoracic cord myelitis at the time of pain onset were significantly more disabled and suffered more pain. Cervical and thoracic lesions that persisted from pain onset to 'out of relapse' follow-up (current MRI) had highly significant (p<0.01) opposing effects on pain scores (std. ß=-0.46 and 0.48, respectively). Lesion length, total lesion burden and number of transverse myelitis relapses did not correlate with pain. CONCLUSIONS: Persistent, caudally located (ie, thoracic) cord lesions in AQP4-Ab-positive patients associate with high postmyelitis chronic pain scores, irrespective of number of myelitis relapses, lesion length and lesion burden. Although disability correlated with pain in isolation, it became an insignificant predictor of pain when analysed alongside craniocaudal location of lesions.

The impact of 2015 neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders criteria on diagnostic rates.

BACKGROUND: The international panel for neuromyelitis optica (NMO) diagnosis has proposed diagnostic criteria for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD). OBJECTIVES: We assessed the impact of these criteria on diagnostic rates in a large cohort of patients. METHODS: We identified and applied the 2006 and 2015 criteria to all patients ( n = 176) seen in the NMO and non-multiple sclerosis central nervous system demyelination clinic (part of the UK NMO service) from January 2013 to May 2015. RESULTS: The 2006 criteria classified 63 of 176 (36%) patients as NMO. A total of 42 patients (67%) were aquaporin 4 (AQP4) immunoglobulin G (IgG) +ve and 21 (33%) AQP4 IgG -ve. The 2015 criteria classified 111 of 176 (63%) patients as NMOSD, of which 81 (73%) were AQP4 IgG +ve and 30 (27%) were AQP4 IgG -ve. There was an increase of 48 patients (76%) diagnosed as NMOSD using the new criteria. CONCLUSION: Application of the 2015 criteria led to a rise in diagnosis of NMOSD by 76%. The rise in the AQP4 IgG +ve group contributed 62% and the seronegative group contributed 14%.

Development of a patient-centred conceptual framework of health-related quality of life in neuromyelitis optica: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is an auto-immune disease that can cause severe visual and mobility impairments. Research on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in NMO is scarce, limiting knowledge on factors influencing HRQoL and support needs. AIM: This study provides the first qualitative exploration of HRQoL in NMO, conducted to provide a conceptual framework for the development of an NMO patient-reported outcome measure. METHOD: Fifteen people with NMO (aged 18-74; 11 women, 4 men) participated in semi-structured interviews; data were analysed using constant comparative analysis. RESULTS: HRQoL in NMO is a multifaceted concept incorporating highly subjective perceptions of normality and meaning. Four major themes were identified: impact of physical symptoms on daily living, utilizing support to achieve independence, expectations for life and meaningful roles in life and purpose. DISCUSSION: Themes highlighted the importance of perceived normality, and its relationship to attaining life goals comparable to peers, as underpinning evaluations of HRQoL. Many people with severe disability reported a high HRQoL, suggesting the inappropriateness of assuming a negative HRQoL on the basis of an individual's neurological impairment. CONCLUSIONS: These findings further the conceptual understanding of HRQoL in NMO, informing patient-care approaches and the development of an NMO-specific patient-reported outcome measure.

Tonic spasms and short myelitis in an elderly woman--unique onset of neuromyelitis optica.

Neuromyelitis optica typically presents at a median age of 40-50 years. The myelitis is usually of acute onset, long (>3 vertebral segments) and causes severe sensorimotor and bladder and bowel disturbances. We describe a 73-year-old Caucasian woman with aquaporin-4 antibody-positive neuromyelitis optica whose index event was intermittent paroxysmal tonic spasms (and no other myelitis features) that recurred for 6 months and was associated with a short spinal cord lesion on MRI. This case reiterates recent observations that neuromyelitis optica can occur in older persons, and its myelitis can be 'short' and clinically mild.

Role of intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of acute relapses of neuromyelitis optica: experience in 10 patients.

Prompt treatment of neuromyelitis optica (NMO) relapses with steroids or plasma exchange (PLEX) often prevents irreversible disability. The objective of this study is to report the use of intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) as treatment for acute relapses in NMO. A retrospective review of 10 patients treated with IVIG for acute relapses was conducted. IVIG was used in the majority of cases because of lack of response to steroids with/without PLEX. Improvement was noted in five of 11 (45.5%) events; the remaining had no further worsening. One patient, a 79-year-old woman, had a myocardial infarction seven days after IVIG. IVIG may have a role in treating acute NMO relapses.

Neuropathic pain in neuromyelitis optica affects activities of daily living and quality of life.

Though pain in neuromyelitis optica (NMO) has been described in two recent reports, the proportion with true neuropathic pain (NP), its features, impact on activities of daily living (ADL) and quality of life has not been well characterised. A cross-sectional study of 50 NMO patients with transverse myelitis was performed using Douleur Neuropathique 4, Brief Pain Inventory, Extended Disability Status Scale and Short Form 36. NP was identified in 62% of patients. Pain was constant in 68% affecting most ADL. Pain was associated with significant reduction of the SF36 Mental Composite Score. The high prevalence of NP and associated disability necessitates an in-depth enquiry in patients with NMO.

Long-term efficacy, tolerability and retention rate of azathioprine in 103 aquaporin-4 antibody-positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder patients: a multicentre retrospective observational study from the UK.

BACKGROUND: Azathioprine (AZA) is a common immunosuppressive drug used for relapse prevention in neuromyelitis optica (NMO). OBJECTIVES: The objective of this paper is to assess efficacy, tolerability and retention of AZA in a large NMO cohort. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective review of medical records of 103 aquaporin-4 antibody-positive NMO and NMO spectrum disorder (NMOSD) patients treated with AZA. RESULTS: This is the largest reported cohort of AQP4-Ab positive patients treated with AZA. Eighty-nine per cent (n = 92) had reduction in median annualised relapse rates from 1.5 (IQR 0.6-4.0) to 0 (IQR 0-0.27, p < 0.00005) with treatment. Sixty-one per cent (n = 63) remained relapse free at a median follow-up of 18 months. Neurological function improved or stabilised in 78%. At last follow-up, treatment was discontinued in 46% (n = 47). Of these, 62% (n = 29) were because of side effects, 19% (n = 9) because of death, 15% (n = 7) because of ongoing disease activity, and 2% (n = 1) because of pregnancy. Using Kaplan-Meyer curves, we estimate that 73%, 58%, 47% and 33% of patients will remain on AZA for longer than one, three, five and 10 years, respectively, after initiation of treatment. CONCLUSIONS: AZA is a modestly effective treatment for NMO. However, many patients discontinue AZA over time and this seems to reflect poor tolerability more than lack of efficacy.

Neuropathic pruritus (itch) in neuromyelitis optica.

BACKGROUND: Neuropathic pruritus (itch) is an uncommon, but well described, symptom in neurology. There are itch-specific neurons in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. We noted excessive pruritus in patients with neuromyelitis optica (NMO). OBJECTIVE: We aimed to explore the characteristics of pruritus in NMO patients. METHODS: We reviewed case records of a well-defined cohort of 45 serial aquaporin-4 antibody-positive patients visiting the national NMO service. All patients were interviewed. RESULTS: Of the 45 antibody-positive NMO patients, 44 had myelitis and 12 of those 44 (27.3%) patients reported pruritus within a week of other symptoms of transverse myelitis with central cord involvement. In three patients, pruritus was the first symptom of a relapse, while in one case, pruritus was the very first symptom of the index episode of NMO. CONCLUSION: Neuropathic pruritus seems to be a common, but under-recognised symptom of myelitis associated with NMO.

Health utilities and costs for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder.

BACKGROUND: Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is a rare, neurological disease that places a significant burden on patients, their carers, and healthcare systems. OBJECTIVES: To estimate patient and carer health utilities and costs of NMOSD within the UK setting. METHODS: Patients with NMOSD and their carers, recruited via a regional specialist treatment centre, completed a postal questionnaire that included a resource use measure, the EuroQoL (EQ)-5D-5L, EQ-5D-VAS, Vision and Quality of Life Index (VisQoL), Carer Experience Survey (CES) and the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS). The questionnaire asked about respondents' use of health and community care services, non-medical costs, informal care and work capacity. Data were analysed descriptively. Uncertainties in costs and utilities were assessed using bootstrap analysis. RESULTS: 117 patients and 74 informal carers responded to the survey. Patients' mean EQ-5D-5L and VisQoL health utilities (95% central range) were 0.54 (- 0.29, 1.00) and 0.79 (0.11, 0.99), respectively. EQ-5D-5L utility decreased with increasing EDSS score bandings, from 0.80 (0.75, 0.85) for EDSS ≤ 4.0, to 0.20 (- 0.29, 0.56) for EDSS 8.0 to 9.5. Mean, 3-month total costs were £5623 (£2096, £12,156), but ranged from £562 (£381, £812) to £32,717 (£2888, £98,568) for these EDSS bandings. Carer-reported EQ-5D-5L utility and CES index scores were 0.85 (0.82, 0.89) and 57.67 (52.69, 62.66). Mean, 3-month costs of informal care were £13,150 to £24,560. CONCLUSIONS: NMOSD has significant impacts on health utilities and NHS and carer costs. These data can be used as inputs to cost-effectiveness analyses of new medicines for NMOSD.

Predictors of relapse in MOG antibody associated disease: a cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors predictive of relapse risk and disability in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein associated disease (MOGAD). SETTING: Patients were seen by the neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD) service in Liverpool, UK, a national referral centre for adult patients with MOGAD, NMOSD and related conditions. PARTICIPANTS: Patients with MOGAD=76 from England, Northern Ireland and Scotland were included in this cohort study. RESULTS: Relapsing disease was observed in 55% (42/76) of cases. Steroid treatment >1 month (OR 0.2, 95% CI 0.05 to 0.80; p=0.022), transverse myelitis (TM) at first attack (OR 0.03, 95% CI 0.004 to 0.23; p=0.001) and male sex (OR 0.16, 95% CI 0.04 to 0.68; p=0.014) were associated with monophasic disease (area under the curve=0.85). Male sex (HR 0.46, 95% CI 0.24 to 0.89; p=0.011) and TM at disease onset (HR 0.42, 95% CI 0.22 to 0.82; p=0.011) were also associated with an increased latency to first relapse. 45% (32/71) of patients became MOG-antibody negative and in relapsing patients negative seroconversion was associated with a lower relapse risk (relative risk 0.11 95% CI 0.05 to 0.26; p<0.001). No specific factors were predictive of visual or overall disability. CONCLUSIONS: Male patients with spinal cord involvement at disease onset have a lower risk of relapsing disease and longer latency to first relapse. Steroid treatment for at least 1 month at first attack was also associated with a monophasic disease course. MOG-antibody negative seroconversion was associated with a lower risk of relapse and may help inform treatment decisions and duration.

In sickness and in health: experience of caring for a spouse with MS.

BACKGROUND People are not expected to die from multiple sclerosis although, as the condition progresses over a period of time, some people become increasingly disabled and will require assistance with all activities of daily living. Their partners invariably carry out these tasks. OBJECTIVE To gain a deeper understanding of the experiences of the partner living with and caring for a spouse disabled by multiple sclerosis. METHODOLOGY In a qualitative study, eight partners who live and care for a person with multiple sclerosis were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire to explore their experience of their role. RESULTS The interview transcripts were analyzed using a thematic framework approach. Codes, themes and five categories were identified, which were worry, planning, frustrations, commitment to marriage and coping strategies. These categories were examined using quotes from the transcripts as evidence. CONCLUSION This qualitative study identified that these couples had been married for at least 20 years before disability of the spouse significantly affected their lifestyle. Partners felt obliged to continue in their caring role due to a sense of duty and commitment of marriage. Partners felt a sense of loss as they prioritized the health and needs of their spouse above their own and, finally, partners lost their identity as husband/wife as they were called 'the carer'. Partners felt out of control due to the unpredictable and progressive nature of MS and because it consumed their life 24 hours every day. Partners often felt guilty at not being satisfied with their life and wanting some independence.

Seasonal distribution of attacks in aquaporin-4 antibody disease and myelin-oligodendrocyte antibody disease.

BACKGROUND: Seasonal variation in incidence and exacerbations has been reported for neuroinflammatory conditions such as multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM). It is unknown whether seasonality also influences aquaporin-4 antibody (AQP4-Ab) disease and myelin-oligodendrocyte antibody (MOG-Ab) disease. OBJECTIVE: We examined the seasonal distribution of attacks in AQP4-Ab disease and MOG-Ab disease. METHODS: Observational study using data prospectively recorded from three cohorts in the United Kingdom. RESULTS: There was no clear seasonal variation in AQP4-Ab or MOG-Ab attacks for either the onset attack nor subsequent relapses. In both groups, the proportion of attacks manifesting with each of the main phenotypes (optic neuritis, transverse myelitis, ADEM/ADEM-like) appeared stable across the year. This study is the first to examine seasonal distribution of MOG-Ab attacks and the largest in AQP4-Ab disease so far. CONCLUSION: Lack of seasonal distribution in AQP4-Ab and MOG-Ab disease may argue against environment factors playing a role in the aetiopathogenesis of these conditions.

Seizures and Encephalitis in Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein IgG Disease vs Aquaporin 4 IgG Disease.

Importance: Antibodies to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein IgG (MOG-IgG) are increasingly detected in patients with non-multiple sclerosis-related demyelination, some of whom manifest a neuromyelitis optica (NMO) phenotype. Cortical involvement, encephalopathy, and seizures are rare in aquaporin 4 antibody (AQP4-IgG)-related NMO in the white European population. However, the authors encountered several patients with seizures associated with MOG-IgG disease. Objective: To compare incidence of seizures and encephalitis-like presentation, or both between AQP4-IgG-positive and MOG-IgG-positive patients. Design, Setting, and Participants: Retrospective case series of all patients who were seropositive for MOG-IgG (n = 34) and the last 100 patients with AQP4-IgG disease (NMO spectrum disorder) seen in the NMO service between January 2013 and December 2016, and analysis was completed January 4, 2017. All patients were seen in a tertiary neurological center, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust in Liverpool, England. Main Outcomes and Measures: The difference in seizure frequency between the AQP4-IgG-positive and MOG-IgG-positive patient groups was determined. Results: Thirty-four patients with MOG-IgG disease (20 female) with a median age at analysis of 30.5 years (interquartile range [IQR], 15-69 years), and 100 AQP4-IgG-positive patients (86 female) with a median age at analysis of 54 years (IQR, 12-91 years) were studied. Most patients were of white race. Five of the 34 patients with MOG-IgG (14.7%) had seizures compared with 1 patient with AQP4-IgG (2-sided P < .008, Fisher test). On magnetic resonance imaging, all 5 MOG-IgG-positive patients had inflammatory cortical brain lesions associated with the seizures. In 3 of the 5 MOG-IgG-positive patients, seizures occurred as part of the index event. Four of the 5 presented with encephalopathy and seizures, and disease relapsed in all 5 patients. Four of these patients were receiving immunosuppressant medication at last follow-up, and 3 continued to take antiepileptic medication. In contrast, the only AQP4-IgG-positive patient with seizures had a diagnosis of complex partial epilepsy preceding the onset of NMO by several years and experienced no encephalitic illness; her magnetic resonance imaging results demonstrated no cortical, subcortical, or basal ganglia involvement. Conclusions and Relevance: Patients with MOG-IgG-associated disease were more likely to have seizures and encephalitis-like presentation than patients with AQP4-IgG-associated disease.

If they are OK, we are OK: the experience of partners living with neuromyelitis optica.

AIM: Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is a rare neuro-inflammatory condition characterized by acute relapses causing severe visual or physical disability. The impact on family members and their experiences have not been studied. The study aims were to explore the lived experience of partners of people with NMO and to investigate potential carer burden in this population. METHOD: A mixed-method design was used; 11 partners of people with NMO completed semi-structured interviews; 54 partners completed Zarit Burden Interview and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. RESULTS: Three qualitative themes influenced partners' quality of life (QoL): role/relationship; it's all about them; and the impact of NMO. Life changed dramatically for participants after the first NMO attack, necessitating responsibility for physical, financial, social, and emotional support. As NMO symptoms improved and stabilized, freedom and QoL for spouses also improved, albeit with on-going worries regarding the impact of potential devastating future relapses. Quantitative findings showed mild/moderate carer burden (46%), mild/moderate anxiety (59%), and mild/moderate depression (24%). No partner indicated severe carer burden, anxiety, or depression. CONCLUSION: Participants regarded themselves as partners rather than carers whom require assessment and support for their emotional and health well-being. Health-care professionals need to acknowledge the important role partners play in the dynamics of the family unit, through greater discussion and inclusion. Implications for Rehabilitation NMO has a strong impact on couples, resulting in both physical caregiving needs and anxiety regarding the unpredictability of potential devastating relapses. Partners do not necessarily experience clinically significant "burden", anxiety or depression, and tools which screen for this may not capture the nature of their experiences. Health-care professionals need to acknowledge, consult, and respect the experience of partners during assessment and implementation of action plans. Partners should be individually assessed based upon the physical and emotional dependency created by NMO to improve their health and well-being.

What proportion of AQP4-IgG-negative NMO spectrum disorder patients are MOG-IgG positive? A cross sectional study of 132 patients.

Antibodies to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG-IgG) have been described in patients with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD) without aquaporin-4 antibodies (AQP4-IgG). We aimed to identify the proportion of AQP4-IgG-negative NMOSD patients who are seropositive for MOG-IgG. In a cross sectional study, we reviewed all patients seen in the National NMO clinic over the last 4 years (after the availability of MOG-IgG testing), including clinical information, MRI, and antibody tests. 261 unique patients were identified. 132 cases satisfied the 2015 NMOSD diagnostic criteria. Of these, 96 (73%) were AQP4-IgG positive and 36 (27%) were AQP4-IgG negative. These 36 patients were tested for MOG-IgG and 15/36 (42%) tested positive. 20% (25/125) of the patients who did not satisfy NMOSD criteria had MOG-IgG. Approximately half of seronegative NMOSD is MOG-Ig seropositive and one in five of non-NMOSD/non-MS demyelination is MOG-IgG positive. Since MOG-associated demyelinating disease is likely different from AQP4-IgG disease in terms of underlying disease mechanisms, relapse risk and possibly treatment, testing for MOG-IgG in patients with AQP4-IgG-negative NMOSD and other non-MS demyelination may have significant implications to management and clinical trials.

High risk of postpartum relapses in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder.

OBJECTIVE: To study the effect of pregnancy on the frequency of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) relapse and evaluate rates of pregnancy-related complications in an international multicenter setting. METHODS: We administered a standardized survey to 217 women with NMOSD from 7 medical centers and reviewed their medical records. We compared the annualized relapse rate (ARR) during a baseline period 2 years prior to a participant's first pregnancy to that during pregnancy and to the 9 months postpartum. We also assessed pregnancy-related complications. RESULTS: There were 46 informative pregnancies following symptom onset in 31 women with NMOSD. Compared to baseline (0.17), ARR was increased both during pregnancy (0.44; p = 0.035) and during the postpartum period (0.69; p = 0.009). The highest ARR occurred during the first 3 months postpartum (ARR 1.33). A total of 8 of 76 (10.5%) with onset of NMOSD prior to age 40 experienced their initial symptom during the 3 months postpartum, 2.9 times higher than expected. CONCLUSIONS: The postpartum period is a particularly high-risk time for initial presentation of NMOSD. In contrast to published observations in multiple sclerosis, in neuromyelitis optica, relapse rate during pregnancy was also increased, although to a lesser extent than after delivery.

Female hormonal exposures and neuromyelitis optica symptom onset in a multicenter study.

OBJECTIVE: To study the association between hormonal exposures and disease onset in a cohort of women with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD). METHODS: Reproductive history and hormone use were assessed using a standardized reproductive survey administered to women with NMOSD (82% aquaporin-4 antibody positive) at 8 clinical centers. Using multivariable regression, we examined the association between reproductive exposures and age at first symptom onset (FS). RESULTS: Among 217 respondents, the mean age at menarche was 12.8 years (SD 1.7). The mean number of pregnancies was 2.1 (SD 1.6), including 0.3 (SD 0.7) occurring after onset of NMOSD symptoms. In the 117 participants who were postmenopausal at the time of the questionnaire, 70% reported natural menopause (mean age: 48.9 years [SD 3.9]); fewer than 30% reported systemic hormone therapy (HT) use. Mean FS age was 40.1 years (SD 14.2). Ever-use of systemic hormonal contraceptives (HC) was marginally associated with earlier FS (39 vs 43 years, p = 0.05). Because HC use may decrease parity, when we included both variables in the model, the association between HC use and FS age became more significant (estimate = 2.7, p = 0.007). Among postmenopausal participants, 24% reported NMOSD onset within 2 years of (before or after) menopause. Among these participants, there was no association between age at menopause or HT use and age at NMOSD onset. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, age at NMOSD onset did not show a strong relationship with endogenous hormonal exposures. An earlier onset age did appear to be marginally associated with systemic HC exposure, an association that requires confirmation in future studies.

Cognitive and psychiatric comorbidities in neuromyelitis optica.

OBJECTIVE: Our primary objective was to examine the neuropsychological and psychopathological profile of patients with neuromyelitis optica (NMO) and compare these to multiple sclerosis (MS) and healthy control (HC) groups. We also examined for relationships between cognitive and psychiatric variables and clinical factors including accumulated neurological disability and disease duration. METHODS: A neuropsychological test battery was administered along with a structured psychiatric interview and quantitative measures of mood symptoms. RESULTS: 42 NMO, 42 MS and 42 HC participants were assessed. Cognitive impairments were observed in 67% of NMO patients. The prevalence and profile of cognitive impairments and lifetime prevalence of depression was similar between NMO and MS groups. However, significantly higher rates of recurrent depression and suicidality were observed in NMO patients. Correlational analyses revealed higher levels of anxiety symptoms were associated with shorter disease duration in NMO, while higher depression symptom levels were associated with higher neurological disability and poorer cognition. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate substantial cognitive and psychiatric comorbidities in NMO patients. Similar rates of lifetime and current depression between NMO and MS appear to mask greater underlying psychiatric burden in NMO and further understandings of the course of neurobehavioural comorbidities is required to better comprehend the additional morbidity in NMO. Our data support a role for cognitive and psychiatric assessments in the comprehensive care of NMO patients.

Information for young people when multiple sclerosis enters the family.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) typically affects people aged 20-40 years and, by its very nature, is characterized by unpredictability, uncertainty and variability, and is therefore bound to have an impact on children who have a parent with MS. There has been little work done to assess the needs of young people living with MS in their family. A series of workshops specifically aimed at 9-14-year-olds who have a parent with MS have been successfully conducted. This article reviews the background to setting up the workshop and identifies implications for future MS specialist nurses to help this potentially vulnerable group of people. By breaking the silence and talking about MS with young people, the myths can be removed and the anxieties reduced.