The Influence of Observer Presence on Baboon (Papio spp.) and Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta) Behavior.

A common method for collecting behavioral data is through direct observations. However, there is very little information available on how a human observer affects the behavior of the animals being observed. This study assesses the effects of a human observer on the behavior of captive nonhuman primates. The subjects were 19 singly housed baboons (nine male, 10 female) and 20 singly housed rhesus macaques (10 male, 10 female) that were not habituated to the presence of an observer. Four 30-min observations were conducted on each animal. Two observations were conducted with an observer present ("present" condition), while the remaining two observations had no observer present ("absent" condition). All observations were recorded with a video camera and were balanced for time of day, with one of each type of observation taking place in the morning and afternoon. In the presence of an observer, appetitive behavior was significantly reduced in both species [F(1,35) = 8.22, P < 0.01]. When an observer was present, females of both species also rested more and performed fewer manipulative behaviors than males [rest: F(1,35) = 7.10, P < 0.05; manipulative: F(1,35) = 6.66, P < 0.05]. Likewise, macaques rested significantly more [F(1,35) = 11.62, P < 0.005] and exhibited fewer manipulative behaviors in the presence of an observer [F(1,35) = 11.06, P < 0.005], while baboons showed no change. Female macaques showed the greatest decrease in activity while an observer was present [F(1,35) = 4.22, P <0.05]. Based on these results, the presence of a human observer does appear to affect the behavior of unhabituated, singly housed baboons and macaques, but the effect differs by both sex and species.

The Effect of a Feeding Schedule Change and the Provision of Forage Material on Hair Eating in a Group of Captive Baboons (Papio hamadryas sp.).

Hair eating in nonhuman primates is thought to result from a frustrated appetitive drive produced by an inappropriate diet. To investigate whether hair eating could be reduced through changes in diet, a 2-part study was conducted with a group of baboons (Papio hamadryas sp.). The 1st part involved changing to a twice-daily feeding routine, thus providing prolonged access to an appropriate food source. The 2nd part involved scattering a grain mix to encourage more foraging while maintaining a once-daily feeding routine. Changing the feeding routine unexpectedly resulted in a significant increase in hair manipulation and ingestion. Providing additional grain did not significantly decrease hair manipulation and ingestion, but several individuals did show a reduction in these behaviors. Prolonged access to biscuits and the provision of a grain mix may have failed to satisfy the urge to forage because little effort was needed for their collection prior to consumption. Although the current study failed to significantly decrease hair eating, it provides valuable insight into further avenues of research on the behavior.

Survey of transport environments of circus tigers (Panthera tigris).

The type of equipment used to transport circus tigers, environmental factors experienced during transport, and resultant body temperatures of tigers transported were surveyed during hot and cold weather conditions with six different circus tiger acts. Dataloggers recorded interior and exterior temperatures, relative humidity, and radiant heat at 5-min intervals during each trip. Microdataloggers fed to the tigers recorded body temperature and were recovered from eight Bengal (Panthera tigris tigris), Siberian (P. t. altaica), or Bengal-Sumatran (P. t. tigris-P. t. sumatrae) cross tigers from four different circuses. Three basic types of systems were used by circus acts to transport tigers: freestanding cages mounted on wheels that were winched or pushed into a semitrailer for transport, cages built into the trailer itself, and weather-resistant units transported on flatbed railcars or flatbed truck trailers. The highest temperature encountered inside a trailer was 37.3 degrees C in hot weather conditions, but overall, temperatures were usually between 21.1-26.7 degrees C. Temperature inside the trailers did not appear to be affected by movement and did not generally exceed ambient temperatures, indicating adequate insulation and passive ventilation. During cold weather trips, the lowest temperature inside the trailers was -1.1 degrees C, occurring during an overnight stop. Interior temperatures during cold weather transport stayed 2-6 degrees C warmer than ambient temperatures. The body temperatures of the tigers were unaffected by extreme temperatures. The only changes observed in body temperature were increases of 1-2 degrees C caused by activity and excitement associated with loading in several groups of tigers, regardless of whether it was hot or cold weather. Whenever measured, carbon monoxide and ammonia were below the detectable concentrations of 10 and 1 ppm. respectively. Overall, transport did not appear to have any adverse effects on the tigers' ability to thermoregulate.

An evaluation of exercise pen use by circus tigers (Pathera tigris tigris).

This study quantified the behavior of 11 tigers during periodic access to an exercise pen throughout the day and night. The study determined the amount of time spent in the pen and the percentage of time spent performing stereotypic pacing, normal locomotor behavior, and lying down while in the pen. Average access to the exercise pen was 10 hr 49 min overnight and 5 hr 30 min during the day. At night, the tigers spent 29.1% of their time in the exercise pen, during which they paced 19.6% and performed normal locomotor behavior for 23.1% of that time. By day, they spent 40.4% of their time in the exercise pen, during which they paced 10.0% and performed normal locomotor behavior 35.7% of that time. The tigers spent the rest of the time in the pen lying down. Overall, tigers will utilize an exercise pen, spending a greater percentage of time in the pen during the day than at night and also performing less stereotyped pacing than at night.

Development of a system for individual feeding of baboons maintained in an outdoor group social environment.

We developed a system that allows individual feeding of adult baboons, 8-15 years of age, maintained in an outdoor group social environment. The purpose of the system is to allow careful monitoring and control of individual diet. Baboons were housed in two group cages, 16 females and a single male in one and 12 females and a single male in the other. Baboons exited the group cage once daily and passed along a chute and over a scale into individual cages where they received their individual diets. Food intake was monitored during their 2-hour stay in the individual cages. Baboons rapidly learned to use this system. Food intake and weight were stable within 20 days. Food consumed decreased during the period of sexual receptivity. The maintenance of the group social environment allowed observations on the group's dominance structure and the relationship of dominance to food consumption. Speed of food access in the group cage was related to dominance. Dominance was not related to food consumed in individual cages. The system permits study of many variables related to behavior and food intake while still retaining critical social interactions.