COVID-19 Molecular Pathophysiology: Acetylation of Repurposing Drugs.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) induces immune-mediated type 1 interferon (IFN-1) production, the pathophysiology of which involves sterile alpha motif and histidine-aspartate domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) tetramerization and the cytosolic DNA sensor cyclic-GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling pathway. As a result, type I interferonopathies are exacerbated. Aspirin inhibits cGAS-mediated signaling through cGAS acetylation. Acetylation contributes to cGAS activity control and activates IFN-1 production and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling via STING. Aspirin and dapsone inhibit the activation of both IFN-1 and NF-κB by targeting cGAS. We define these as anticatalytic mechanisms. It is necessary to alleviate the pathologic course and take the lag time of the odds of achieving viral clearance by day 7 to coordinate innate or adaptive immune cell reactions.

4,4'-Diaminodiphenyl Sulfone (DDS) as an Inflammasome Competitor.

The aim of this study is to examine the use of an inflammasome competitor as a preventative agent. Coronaviruses have zoonotic potential due to the adaptability of their S protein to bind receptors of other species, most notably demonstrated by SARS-CoV. The binding of SARS-CoV-2 to TLR (Toll-like receptor) causes the release of pro-IL-1ß, which is cleaved by caspase-1, followed by the formation and activation of the inflammasome, which is a mediator of lung inflammation, fever, and fibrosis. The NLRP3 (NACHT, LRR and PYD domains-containing protein 3) inflammasome is implicated in a variety of human diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD), prion diseases, type 2 diabetes, and numerous infectious diseases. By examining the use of 4,4'-diaminodiphenyl sulfone (DDS) in the treatment of patients with Hansen's disease, also diagnosed as Alzheimer's disease, this study demonstrates the diverse mechanisms involved in the activation of inflammasomes. TLRs, due to genetic polymorphisms, can alter the immune response to a wide variety of microbial ligands, including viruses. In particular, TLR2Arg677Trp was reported to be exclusively present in Korean patients with lepromatous leprosy (LL). Previously, mutation of the intracellular domain of TLR2 has demonstrated its role in determining the susceptibility to LL, though LL was successfully treated using a combination of DDS with rifampicin and clofazimine. Of the three tested antibiotics, DDS was effective in the molecular regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome activators that are important in mild cognitive impairment (MCI), Parkinson's disease (PD), and AD. The specific targeting of NLRP3 itself or up-/downstream factors of the NLRP3 inflammasome by DDS may be responsible for its observed preventive effects, functioning as a competitor.

Reactivity change of IgE to buckwheat protein treated with high-pressure and enzymatic hydrolysis.

BACKGROUND: Buckwheat is a popular food material in eastern Asian countries that can cause allergenic response. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of hydrolysis with papain and high-pressure (HP) treatment of buckwheat protein (BWP) on reactivity of immunoglobulin E (IgE) and its secondary structure. RESULTS: Reactivity of IgE was examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with serum samples from 16 patients allergic to buckwheat. Reactivity of IgE to hydrolysate of BWP with papain showed a maximum decrease of 79.8%. After HP treatment at 600 MPa for 1 min, reactivity of IgE to BWP decreased by up to 55.1%. When extracted, BWP was hydrolyzed with papain overnight following HP treatment at 600 MPa which the reactivity of IgE decreased significantly by up to 87.1%. Significant changes in secondary structure of BWP were observed by circular dichroism (CD) analysis after hydrolysis with papain following HP treatment. CONCLUSION: Reduction of reactivity of IgE showed a correlation with changes in secondary structure of BWP, which may cause changes in conformational epitopes. This suggests the possibility of decreasing the reactivity of IgE to BWP using combined physical and enzymatic treatments.

Global harmonization of food safety regulation from the perspective of Korea and a novel fast automatic product recall system.

Efforts have been made for global harmonization of food safety regulations among countries through international organizations such as WTO and WHO/FAO. Global harmonization of food safety regulations is becoming increasingly important for Korean consumers because more than half of food and agricultural products are imported and consumed. Through recent reorganization of the Korean government, a consolidated national food safety authority-the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS)-has been established for more efficient food safety control and better communication with consumers. The Automatic Sales Blocking System (ASBS), which blocks the sales of the recalled food products at the point of sale, has been implemented at over 40,000 retail food stores around the nation using state-of-the art information and communication technology (ICT) for faster recall of adulterated food products, and the e-Food Safety Control System has been developed for more efficient monitoring of national food safety surveillance situations. The National Food Safety Information Service was also established for monitoring and collecting food safety information and incidents worldwide, and shares relevant information with all stakeholders. The new approaches adopted by the Korean Food Safety Authority are expected to enhance public trust with regard to food safety issues and expedite the recall process of adulterated products from the market.

Allergenicity of an enzymatic hydrolysate of soybean 2S protein.

BACKGROUND: This study was performed to examine how the characteristics of soybean 2S protein influence allergenicity after enzymatic hydrolysis. Soybean 2S protein was extracted and enzymatic hydrolysis was performed using pepsin and chymotrypsin. Allergenicity was observed using soybean-sensitive patients' sera. RESULTS: Only 13.3% (6/45) of soybean-sensitive patients reacted to soybean Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (SKTI), known as the major allergen of soybean 2S protein. After peptic hydrolysis for 90 min at pH 1.2, the intensity of SKTI decreased to 25% but was still visible on SDS-PAGE. Chymotryptic hydrolysis following peptic hydrolysis at pH 8 for 60 min showed a limited hydrolytic effect on soybean 2S protein. Peptic hydrolysis of soybean 2S protein partially reduced the allergenicity of soybean 2S protein, while chymotryptic hydrolysis following peptic hydrolysis increased slightly the allergenicity. CONCLUSION: Food allergy caused by soybean 2S protein occurred in part of the soybean-sensitive patients. SKTI was partially digested after peptic hydrolysis for 90 min. The allergenicity was decreased with peptic hydrolysis, while subsequent treatment of chymotrypsin increased slightly the allergenicity.

Discovery, verification, and validation of walnut protein marker peptides using LC-MS approaches.

A key requirement of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based allergenic food protein analysis methods is to use protein marker peptides with good analytical performances in LC-MS analysis of commercial processed foods. In this study, we developed a multi-stage walnut protein marker peptide selection strategy involving marker peptide discovery and verification and LC-MS validation of chemically equivalent stable isotope-labeled peptides. This strategy proposed three walnut protein marker peptides, including two new marker peptides. Our LC-MS-based walnut protein analysis method using the three stable isotope-labeled peptides showed acceptable linearity (R2 >0.99), matrix effects (coefficient of variation <±15%), sensitivity (limit of detection >0.3 pg/µL, limit of quantification >0.8 pg/µL), recovery (85.1-103.4%), accuracy, and precision (coefficient of variation <10%). In conclusion, our multi-stage marker peptide selection strategy effectively selects specific protein marker peptides for sensitive detection and absolute quantification of walnut proteins in LC-MS analysis of commercial processed foods.

Recovery of Dementia Syndrome following Treatment of Brain Inflammation.

AIM/BACKGROUND: This research aims to prevent progression from mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to Alzheimer's disease. A Japanese study of leprosy patients revealed that the incidence of dementia in leprosy patients was lower than that in patients taking dapsone who had never been treated. But a similar study the following year refuted the finding of less dementia in leprosy patients taking dapsone. According to conflicting reports, Mycobacterium leprae was a factor in reducing the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. Thus, we formed a hypothesis that if dapsone is administered to patients without leprosy but with MCI and the prophylactic effect of dementia syndrome is observed over a long period of time, we can determine whether dapsone can prevent the progression of MCI to dementia syndrome. If dementia does not occur after treating inflammation in brain cells while dementia develops after a certain long-term period (usually within 2-3 years), brain cell inflammation can be demonstrated as the cause of dementia. METHODS: This is a prospective cohort research. We report on an elderly patient diagnosed with MCI from February 2008 to January 2019. The patient took dapsone 100 mg once a day from 2010 to 2015 for the treatment of MCI. Since 2016, the production of dapsone has ceased in Korea. In June 2018, the patient was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. The patient took Aricept for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease but complained of serious side effects. And dapsone was re-administered to the patient from November 2018. RESULTS: The patient recovered to MCI and improved her daily life owing to the treatment with dapsone. The drug controls the inflammatory response in the brain, irrespective of whether proteins are deposited in neurons. CONCLUSIONS: This finding means that dementia syndrome is an inflammatory disease. This research suggests that diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer's disease should be based on the presence or absence of inflammation in neurons. Because inflammation in neurons can occur in middle age due to various causes, we can treat inflammation in neurons and prevent and treat dementia syndrome, including Alzheimer's disease.

Prevalence and toxigenic profiles of Bacillus cereus isolated from dried red peppers, rice, and Sunsik in Korea.

Bacillus cereus is a spore-forming foodborne pathogen responsible for diarrheal and emetic types of food poisoning. Intoxication is caused by various enterotoxins or by emetic toxin. Because of its widespread presence and the ability to form heat-stable endospores in a relatively short time, B. cereus has been difficult to control. In this study, 21 rice and 36 Sunsik (a mixture of powdered raw grains) samples were examined for the prevalence of B. cereus. A multiplex PCR assay was used to evaluate the distribution of 10 different toxigenicity-related genes among 1,082 B. cereus strains isolated from dried red peppers (919 isolates), rice (98 isolates), and Sunsik (65 isolates). The results suggest that (i) the examined foods were free of the emetic toxin but not free of enterotoxins and (ii) the distribution of enterotoxigenic genes was significantly different among the B. cereus isolates from various sources.

Simultaneous identification of seven foodborne pathogens and Escherichia coli (pathogenic and nonpathogenic) using capillary electrophoresis-based single-strand conformation polymorphism coupled with multiplex PCR.

The objective of this study was to develop a novel technique for parallel analysis of eight important foodborne microbes using capillary electrophoresis-based single-strand conformation polymorphism (CE-SSCP) coupled with multiplex PCR. Specific primers for multiplex PCR amplification of the 16S rRNA gene were designed, corresponding to eight species of bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella enterica, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus cereus, for the species-specific identification and optimal separation of their PCR products in subsequent analysis by CE-SSCP. Multiplex PCR conditions including annealing temperature, extension time, the number of PCR cycles, and primer concentrations were then optimized for simultaneous detection of all target foodborne bacteria. The diagnostic system using CE-SSCP combined with multiplex PCR developed here can be used for rapid investigation of causative agents of foodborne illness. The simplicity and high sensitivity of the method may lead to improved management of safety and illness related to food.

Molecular epidemiology of norovirus infections in children with acute gastroenteritis in South Korea in November 2005 through November 2006.

Norovirus infections were detected in 114 of 762 children with acute gastroenteritis in South Korea from November 2005 to November 2006. Seasonality peaks in December, March, and October were also assessed in this study. We identified seven noroviral genotypes (GI-6, GII-2, GII-3, GII-4, GII-5, GII-6, and GII-8) and a C1-120 strain showing low identity (79.3%) with GII-13 and GII-17.

A sensitive enzyme immunoassay for amygdalin in food extracts using a recombinant antibody.

Amygdalin (laterile) is a cyanogenic glycoside commonly found in the pits of many fruits and raw nuts. When amygdalin-containing seeds are crushed and moistened, free cyanide is formed. Pits and nuts containing unusually high levels of amygdalin can therefore cause cyanide poisoning, and detection of amygdalin in food extracts can be a life-saving measure. In this study, we generated recombinant antibodies against amygdalin from a phage display of a combinatorial rabbit/human chimeric antibody library and used it in a sensitive competition enzyme immunoassay system to detect amygdalin in extracts of pits and nuts. The detection limit was determined to be 1 x 10(-9) M.

Effect of Proteolysis with Alkaline Protease Following High Hydrostatic Pressure Treatment on IgE Binding of Buckwheat Protein.

Buckwheat is a popular food material in many Asian countries and it contains major allergenic proteins. This study was performed to analyze the effects of hydrolysis with alkaline protease following high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) treatment on the IgE binding of buckwheat protein. Extracted buckwheat protein was treated with HHP at 600 MPa for 30 min and hydrolyzed with alkaline protease for 240 min. IgE binding was examined using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with serum samples from 14 patients who were allergic to buckwheat. Depending on the serum samples, HHP treatment of buckwheat protein without enzymatic hydrolysis decreased the IgE binding by 8.9% to 73.2% or increased by 31% to 78%. The IgE binding of buckwheat protein hydrolyzed with alkaline protease decreased by 73.8% to 100%. The IgE binding of buckwheat protein hydrolyzed with alkaline protease following HHP treatment decreased by 83.8% to 100%. This suggested that hydrolysis with alkaline protease following HHP treatment could be applied to reduce the IgE binding of buckwheat protein.

Detection of abnormally high amygdalin content in food by an enzyme immunoassay.

Amygdalin is a cyanogenic glycoside compound which is commonly found in the pits of many fruits and raw nuts. Although amygdalin itself is not toxic, it can release cyanide (CN) after hydrolysis when the pits and nuts are crushed, moistened and incubated, possibly within the gastrointestinal tract. CN reversibly inhibits cellular oxidizing enzymes and cyanide poisoning generates a range of clinical symptoms. As some pits and nuts may contain unusually high levels of amygdalin such that there is a sufficient amount to induce critical CN poisoning in humans, the detection of abnormal content of amygdalin in those pits and nuts can be a life-saving measure. Although there are various methods to detect amygdalin in food extracts, an enzyme immunoassay has not been developed for this purpose. In this study we immunized New Zealand White rabbits with an amygdalin-KLH (keyhole limpet hemocyanin) conjugate and succeeded in raising anti-sera reactive to amygdalin, proving that amygdalin can behave as a hapten in rabbits. Using this polyclonal antibody, we developed a competition enzyme immunoassay for determination of amygdalin concentration in aqueous solutions. This technique was able to effectively detect abnormally high amygdalin content in various seeds and nuts. In conclusion, we proved that enzyme immunoassay can be used to determine the amount of amygdalin in food extracts, which will allow automated analysis with high throughput.

Inactivation of Bacillus cereus spores by high hydrostatic pressure at different temperatures.

The effect of pH on the initiation of germination and on the inactivation of Bacillus cereus (KCTC 1012) spores during high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) with pressures of 0.1 to 600 MPa at different temperatures was investigated. Two different high-pressure treatments were adopted to evaluate the effect of pH on the inactivation of B. cereus on sporulation medium and in suspension medium. Inactivation of B. cereus spores with HPP treatment was affected more by sporulation medium pH than by suspension medium pH. B. cereus spores obtained through sporulation at pH 6.0 showed more resistance to inactivation by HPP at 20, 40, and 60 degrees C than did those obtained through sporulation at pHs of 7.0 and 8.0. Constituents of B. cereus spores obtained through sporulation at pH 6.0 may undergo electrochemical charge changes comparable to those for spores obtained through sporulation at pH 7.0. The initiation of B. cereus spore germination was more sensitive to pressure around 300 MPa at 20 degrees C. Increasing processing temperatures during HPP enhanced the effect of sporulation medium pH (i.e., environmental pH) on the inactivation of B. cereus spores.

Effects of enzymatic hydrolysis of buckwheat protein on antigenicity and allergenicity.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Due to its beneficial health effects, use of buckwheat has shown a continuous increase, and concerns regarding the allergic property of buckwheat have also increased. This study was conducted for evaluation of the hydrolytic effects of seven commercial proteases on buckwheat allergens and its allergenicity. MATERIALS/METHODS: Extracted buckwheat protein was hydrolyzed by seven proteolytic enzymes at individual optimum temperature and pH for four hours. Analysis was then performed using SDS-PAGE, immunoblotting, and competitive inhibition ELISA (ciELISA) with rabbit antiserum to buckwheat protein, and direct ELISA with pooled serum of 21 buckwheat-sensitive patients. RESULTS: Alkaline protease, classified as serine peptidase, was most effective in reducing allergenicity of buckwheat protein. It caused decomposition of the whole buckwheat protein, as shown on SDS-PAGE, and results of immunoblotting showed that the rabbit antiserum to buckwheat protein no longer recognized it as an antigen. Allergenicity showed a decrease of more than 50% when pooled serum of patients was used in ELISA. Two proteolytic enzymes from Aspergillus sp. could not hydrolyze buckwheat allergens effectively, and the allergenicity even appeared to increase. CONCLUSIONS: Serine-type peptidases appeared to show a relatively effective reduction of buckwheat allergenicity. However, the antigenicity measured using rabbit antiserum did not correspond to the allergenicity measured using sera from human patients. Production of less allergenic buckwheat protein may be possible using enzymatic hydrolysis.

Erratum: Effects of enzymatic hydrolysis of buckwheat protein on antigenicity and allergenicity.

[This corrects the article on p. 278 in vol. 8, PMID: 24944772.].

Allergenic potential and enzymatic resistance of buckwheat.

Buckwheat is known as a health food but is one of the major food allergens triggering potentially fatal anaphylaxis in Asia, especially in Japan and Korea. This study was conducted to investigate the characteristic of enzymatic resistance of buckwheat protein and allergenic potential. Enzymatic resistance of buckwheat protein was performed with in vitro digestibility test in simulated gastric fluid (SGF), pH 1.2, using pepsin and simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) using chymotrypsin. Reactivity of buckwheat proteins to human IgE was performed using six allergic patients sensitized to buckwheat. Buckwheat's IgE levels were measured using the Phadia UniCAP-system. Buckwheat protein, 16 kDa, still remained after 30 min treatment of pepsin on SDS-PAGE. Even though 16 kDa almost disappeared after 60 min treatment, two out of the six buckwheat patients' sera showed reactivity to hydrolysate after 60 min treatment, indicating that allergenicity still remained. In simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) using chymotrypsin, buckwheat protein, 24 kDa, showed resistance to hydrolysis with chymotrypsin on SDS-PAGE, and still had allergenicity based on the result of ELISA. Our results suggest that buckwheat proteins have strong resistance to enzyme degradation. This may be attributed in part to the allergenic potential of buckwheat. Further study should be continued regarding buckwheat allergy.

Detection and identification of Vibrio species using whole-cell protein pattern analysis.

Outbreaks of foodborne diseases associated with Vibrio species such as V. parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus, and V. cholerae frequently occur in countries having a dietary habit of raw seafood consumption. For rapid identification of different Vibrio species involved in foodborne diseases, whole-cell protein pattern analysis for 13 type strains of 12 Vibrio species was performed using SDS-PAGE analysis. Pathogenic Vibrio species such as V. parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus, V. cholerae, V. alginolyticus, V. fluvialis, and V. mimicus were included in the 12 Vibrio species used in this study. Each of the 12 Vibrio species showed clearly specific band patterns of its own. Two different strains of V. parahaemolyticus showed two different SDS-PAGE wholecell protein patterns, giving the possibility of categorizing isolated strains in the same V. parahaemolyticus species into two subgroups. The 36 Vibrio isolates collected from sushi restaurants in Busan were all identified as V. parahaemolyticus by comparing their protein patterns with those of Vibrio type strains. The identified isolates were categorized into two different subgroups of V. parahaemolyticus. The whole-cell protein pattern analysis by SDS-PAGE can be used as a specific, rapid, and simple identification method for Vibrio spp. involved in foodborne diseases at the subspecies level.

Molecular characterization of two strains of porcine group C rotavirus.

Group C rotaviruses are an important cause of acute gastroenteritis in humans and animals. Fecal samples were collected from a porcine herd in July, 2009. Group C rotavirus RNA was detected using RT-PCR for the VP6 gene. The identified strain was further characterized by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the partial VP4, and complete VP6 and VP7 gene sequences. The partial VP4 and complete VP6 gene sequences of the CUK-5 strain were most closely related to those of the CUK-6 strain of group C rotaviruses. Phylogenetic analysis of the VP7 gene of the 2 strains (CUK-5 and CUK-6) and reference strains of group G rotavirus by the neighbor-joining method also confirmed that CUK-5 and CUK-6 belonged to type G5 and G1 strains, respectively. This study provides useful data for the prediction of newly appearing variants of porcine group C rotaviruses in neighboring countries through comparisons with GCRVs and fundamental research for vaccine development.

Characterization and stability analysis of zinc oxide nanoencapsulated conjugated linoleic acid.

Nanoencapsulation technology has a diverse range of applications, including drug-delivery systems (DDS) and cosmetic and chemical carriers, because it can deliver various bio- and organic-molecules and improve their stabilities. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has health benefits, including being an anticancer agent, but it decreases flavor due to volatiles from oxidation. To improve the stability of CLA for food applications, nanoencapsulated CLA was synthesized for use in zinc basic salt (ZBS) and characterized by powder X-ray diffractometry, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), elemental CHN analysis, inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis, UV/VIS spectroscopy, and FTIR spectroscopy. The thermal stability of nanoencapsulated CLA at 180 degrees C, a temperature similar to that used in cooking, was analyzed by gas chromatography. The gallery height of nanoencapsulated CLA was determined to be approximately 26 A through powder X-ray diffractometry; therefore, the CLA molecules were closely packed with zig-zag form between the intracrystalline spaces of nano particles. Elemental CHN analysis and ICP data determined the chemical composition of nanoencapsulated CLA to be Zn(4.86)(OH)(8.78)(CLA)(0.94). By TGA, it was determined about 45% (wt/wt) of weight loss corresponded to CLA, which is good agreement with the 42.13% (wt/wt) determined from high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and elemental CHN analysis. UV/VIS spectroscopy and Fourier-transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy showed encapsulated CLA maintained a conjugated diene structure, supporting the presence of CLA. Nanoencapsulation improved the thermal stability of CLA by about 25%, compared to pristine CLA. Practical Application: This system can be used for protection of encapsulated negatively-charged food ingredients from thermal processing.