Syrian Hamster Embryo (SHE) cell transformation assay with and without X-ray irradiation of feeder cells using Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and N-nitroso-N-methylnitroguanidine (MNNG).

The SHE cell transformation assay has traditionally been conducted with a feeder layer of X-ray irradiated cells to provide growth support to the target cells seeded in low numbers. The need for an X-ray irradiated feeder cell layer necessitates the maintenance of an X-ray machine and the additional step to seed feeder cells prior to plating target cells. This laboratory has previously reported a method allowing target cells to be seeded in conditioned media prepared from the stock culture flasks in lieu of plating them on a feeder layer (Pant et al. [1,2,4]). In order to expand the data base for chemicals tested using this method, we describe in this paper the results obtained testing Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and N-nitroso-N-methylnitroguanidine (MNNG) which are known to give positive responses in the standard SHE cell transformation assay. With freshly prepared conditioned medium (used within 2 weeks of preparation), there was essentially no difference in the number of target cell colonies in the conditioned medium and in the plates with the X-ray irradiated feeder cell layer. The plating efficiencies of the vehicle controls were within the historical range for the standard SHE cell transformation assay. In more than ten experiments the positive control benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P] elicited a significant increase in morphological transformation frequency (MTF), with or without X-ray irradiated feeder cells. Compounds, DEHP and MNNG, were tested in the SHE cell transformation assay with and without an X-ray irradiated feeder layer and using a 7-day exposure regimen. The results were comparable between experiments performed using either method. These results demonstrate the feasibility of conducting the SHE cell transformation assay without the use of an X-ray irradiated feeder layer, thereby simplifying the test procedure and assisting the scoring of morphologically transformed colonies.

Use of unscheduled DNA synthesis in freshly isolated human intestinal mucosal cells for carcinogen detection.

Mucosal cells freshly isolated from human intestine with pronase retain the capacity to undergo DNA repair synthesis (unscheduled DNA synthesis) during a 2-hr exposure to the carcinogen, N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine, and the procarcinogen, aflatoxin B1. This procedure combining the use of human intestinal mucosal cells and the measurement of unscheduled DNA synthesis may provide a highly relevant and convenient test system for the detection of cell-specific, direct-acting, and activation-dependent chemical carcinogens. The use of whole-cell preparations in such in vitro studies may be of additional significance in view of growing evidence for artefactual metabolism by subcellular fractions.

A survey of growth in soft agar and cell surface properties as markers for transformation in adult rat liver epithelial-like cell cultures.

Continuous epithelial-like cell lines derived from normal adult rat liver and hepatocarcinomas were evaluated for their growth in soft agar and five properties of the cell membrane as markers for neoplastic transformation. A correlation of these properties was made to the tumorigenicity of the lines in nude mice. Growth in soft agar was a specific and sensitive marker, whereas the data on uptake of 2-deoxy-D-glucose were consistent, with high uptake being a specific but clearly not a sensitive marker. Agglutination and hemadsorption mediated by concanavalin A, multinucleation in the presence of cytochalasin B, and the cell membrane activity of adenosine triphosphatase did not correlate with tumorigenicity of the other markers for transformation. In addition, it is shown that Mycoplasma infection does not alter any of these properties but that infection can be eliminated by passage of cells through nude mice.

Mechanism of inhibition of N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine-induced mutagenesis by phenolic compounds.

At non-toxic concentrations, 2 naturally occurring phenolic compounds, caffeic acid and chlorogenic acid, suppressed the mutagenic activity of the carcinogen N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA1535. The inhibitory effect was observed only when the phenolic compound and the mutagen were administered concurrently. The interaction between phenolic compounds and MNNG was also studied in a cell-free system using a colorimetric method. The results are consistent with the assumption that phenolic compounds scavenge reactive electrophilic MNNG degradation products, thereby preventing their action on critical cellular targets.

Clastogenic activity in urine of individuals with urinary bladder infections.

The object of this study was to determine whether an elevation in chromosome-damaging (clastogenic) activity occurred in the urine of individuals with bladder infections. Urine samples were collected from 18 patients with chronic (long-term) bladder infections (CBI). Organic material was extracted from urine by preparative reversed-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography and assayed for chromosome-damaging activity in Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cell cultures. Clastogenic activity was present in these urine extracts at levels significantly above those observed in control individuals (P less than 0.001). These levels were comparable to those observed in smoker's urine. In addition, 2 of 4 individuals with acute (short-term) bladder infection (ABI) showed a significant elevation in clastogenic activity in their urine samples (P = 0.025). This study indicates that clastogenic components can be produced during bacterial infections in the urinary bladder and supports a direct involvement of urinary tract infections in the development of bladder cancer.

Mutagenic activity of ascorbate in mammalian cell cultures.

Exposure of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells to solutions of ascorbate (2--5 x 10(-4) M) resulted in the induction of somatic mutations at the hypoxanthineguanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT) locus. Mutant cells were resistant to 6-thioguanine (10 microgram/ml) and sensitive to HAT (hypoxanthine, aminopterin, thymidine) medium. Doses of ascorbate which were mutagenic were also toxic. Addition of catalase to such ascorbate concentrations prevented both mutagenesis and toxicity. This suggests that mutagenic metabolites of ascorbate may involve peroxide radicals.

Lack of mutagenic activity of 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate.

1,6-Hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) is an aliphatic diisocyanate used in the manufacture of higher molecular weight biuret and trimer polyisocyanate resins. These resins are commonly used in polyurethane paints, resulting in potential occupational, and to a lesser extent consumer exposures. Because some isocyanates have been reported to be mutagenic, HDI was tested in the bacterial reverse mutation assay (Ames test), CHO/HGPRT gene mutation assay, and in the mouse micronucleus test, using vapor-phase exposures. Although indicators of toxicity were observed in each test, HDI did not induce mutagenic or clastogenic effects in any of the three assays.

Genotoxicity of iron compounds in Salmonella typhimurium and L5178Y mouse lymphoma cells.

The mutagenic activity of elemental and salt forms of iron (Fe), including compounds currently being used in dietary supplements and for food fortification, were evaluated for mutagenicity in Salmonella typhimurium and L5178Y mouse lymphoma cells. Except for the weak response obtained with ferrous fumarate, none of the compounds induced a mutagenic response in Salmonella. In the mouse lymphoma assay, responses were related to the Fe compound and/or reduction of ferric (Fe+3) to ferrous (Fe+2). Responses with the elemental forms of Fe were divergent. Electrolytic Fe with a relatively larger particle size and irregular shape was negative. The smaller-sized carbonyl Fe, which after 4 hr attached to and was taken up by the cells, induced mutagenic responses both with and without S9. With ferric chloride (FeCl3) and ferric phosphate (FePO4), there was an increase in mutant frequency only with S9. With the Fe+2 compounds, ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) and ferrous fumarate (FeC4H2O4), positive responses were observed without S9. The Fe chelate, sodium Fe(III)EDTA was positive in both the presence and absence of S9. The lowest effective doses (LED) for induction of mutagenicity were identified for these compounds and an LED ratio calculated. The LED ratio ranges from 1 for FeSO4 to 30 for carbonyl Fe, which are similar to oral LD50 values obtained in animal studies.

Genotoxicity of iron chelators in L5178Y mouse lymphoma cells.

To further study the mechanism of observed iron mutagenicity and cellular toxicity, a number of different iron chelators were evaluated to select a compound that was not mutagenic and had limited toxicity to mouse lymphoma cells. A series of iron chelators including those used clinically, those under development for clinical applications, and those used in nonclinical applications were evaluated. The mutagenic activity of the iron chelators was assessed in L5178Y mouse lymphoma cells. Eight of the 12 iron chelators that were tested induced mutagenic responses both with and without the addition of S9. Among those chelators used clinically or developed for clinical use, the only compound that did not induce a mutagenic response was the starch deferoxamine conjugate. In contrast, deferoxamine mesylate showed the highest toxicity in this group of chemicals and the concentrations leading to toxicity and mutagenicity between the activated and nonactivated assays were not significantly different. The other three chelators that were not mutagenic were Na2EDTA, phytic acid, and ferrozine.

Evaluation of the mutagenicity of an N-nitroso contaminant of the sunscreen Padimate O: N-nitroso-N-methyl-p-aminobenzoic acid, 2-ethylhexyl ester (NPABAO).

The nitrosamine contaminant, N-nitroso-N-methyl-p-aminobenzoic acid, 2-ethylhexyl ester (NPABAO), of the major sunscreen ingredient Padimate O (4-N,N'-dimethylamino-benzoic acid, 2-ethylhexyl ester) was synthesized and tested for mutagenicity in the Salmonella typhimurium and mouse lymphoma L5178Y TK +/- assays. In contrast to the previously reported positive responses in S. typhimurium tester strains TA100 and TA1535 [Loeppky et al., 1991], there were no increases in the number of revertants with strains TA98, TA100, TA1535, and TA1538 in either the Salmonella plate incorporation [Ames et al., 1975] or preincubation [Yahagi et al., 1977] assays. Additional testing with Salmonella, following the modified preincubation procedure [Rogan, 1990] that gave the initial positive response, was also negative. Data from the mouse lymphoma assays were also uniformly negative. During synthesis of NPABAO, small amounts of 4-N,N'-dimethylamino-3-nitrobenzoic acid, 2-ethylhexyl ester (DMANBAO) can be formed. To determine whether the reported positive mutagenicity response of NPABAO could be the result of trace amounts of DMANBAO in the NPABAO, that compound was also synthesized and tested for mutagenicity with Salmonella. Positive responses were obtained with tester strains TA98 and TA 1538 but not with TA100 and TA1535, indicating that DMANBAO was not responsible for the increase in revertants originally reported.

Genetic toxicology assessment of HI-6 dichloride.

The oxime HI-6 dichloride [1-(2 hydroxyiminomethyl -1-pyridino)-3-(4-carbamoyl-1-pyridino)-2-oxapropane dichloride monohydrate] has shown to be a potent reactivator of cholinesterase activity and may have efficacy for the treatment of organophosphate intoxication [SIPRI, 1976; Schenk et al.; Arch Toxicol 36:71-81, 1976]. As part of a preclinical safety assessment program, the genetic toxicology of HI-6 dichloride was evaluated in a series of assays designed to measure induction of gene mutations and chromosomal aberrations. HI-6 dichloride gave negative responses in the Salmonella mutagenicity assay and in the CHO/HGPRT gene mutation assay. Dose-dependent increases in the frequency of chromosomal aberrations were noted when HI-6 dichloride was tested in cultured CHO cells and in cultured human peripheral blood lymphocytes. The mouse lymphoma gene mutation assay, reputed to measure both gene mutations and chromosomal deletions, was negative in the absence of metabolic activation. Depending on the criteria employed, a negative or equivocal response was seen in the presence of rat liver-derived S-9 mix. An in vivo rat bone marrow metaphase assay performed to further investigate the in vitro clastogenic responses was negative. The results from these studies indicate that HI-6 dichloride does not induce gene mutations in vitro; however, it is clastogenic in vitro but does not appear to be clastogenic in vivo.

Inhibitory effect of phenolic compounds on aflatoxin B1 metabolism and induced mutagenesis.

The interaction between phenolic compounds and the food-borne carcinogenic mycotoxin, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), was examined. 6 phenolic compounds (gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, dopamine, p-hydroxybenzoic acid and salicylic acid) inhibited AFB1-induced mutagenesis in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA98 in a suspension assay in the presence of rat-liver microsomes (S9). The inhibitory effect was observed when the phenolic compound and the mutagen (AFB1 plus S9) were administered concurrently, but not when exposure to the mutagen was followed by the phenolic compound. The concentrations of the phenolic compounds used were not mutagenic to S. typhimurium strain TA98 and had no effect on the survival of the bacteria. The inhibition of AFB1 metabolism was studied using high-pressure liquid chromatography. Increasing the concentration of all 6 phenolic compounds resulted in a dose-dependent reduction of both major AFB1 metabolite peaks. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that the phenolic compounds do not react covalently with AFB1, and the inhibitory effect of phenolic compounds on AFB1-induced mutagenesis may be due to the inhibition of the activation enzymes.

Genotoxicity tests with 6-acetyl-1,1,2,4,4,7-hexamethyltetraline and 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-gamma-2-benzopyr an.

6-Acetyl-1,1,2,4,4,7-hexamethyltetraline (AHTN) and 1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-gamma-2-ben zopyran (HHCB), synthetic fragrance ingredients, were evaluated for potential genotoxicity in a battery of short-term tests. Salmonella typhimurium/Escherichia coli plate incorporation and liquid preincubation assays were conducted on AHTN using tester strains TA97, TA98, TA100, TA102, TA1535, TA1537 and WP2 uvrA +/- S9 activation at doses from 8 to 5000 micrograms/plate. The plate incorporation mutagenicity assay was conducted on HHCB using tester strains TA98, TA100, TA1535, TA1537, TA1538 and WP2 uvrA +/- S9 activation at doses from 10 to 5000 micrograms/plate. An in vitro cytogenetics assay in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells was conducted with AHTN and HHCB at three concentrations each with +/- S9 activation. In the non-activated study, the exposure/harvest periods were 4/20-, 20/20- and 44/44-h. In the S9 activated study, the exposure/harvest periods were 4/20- and 4/44-h. In vitro unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) assays were conducted in primary rat hepatocytes at concentrations between 0.15 and 50 micrograms/ml for AHTN and HHCB. In vivo mouse micronucleus assays were conducted with high doses of 1600 mg AHTN/kg and of 1500 mg HHCB/kg in corn oil. No positive responses were observed in any of the tests with HHCB. With AHTN, no positive responses were observed except for cells with structural aberrations in the in vitro cytogenetics assay in CHO cells with S9 activation at the treatment/harvest time of 4/20 h. In initial studies with AHTN, the high dose of 7.8 micrograms/ml showed 0.5% aberrant cells, with the mitotic index at 41% relative to vehicle control and cell growth inhibition in the range of 25-50%. Thus the genotoxicity findings with AHTN were limited to this one positive response; all other genotoxicity tests with AHTN were considered as negative. In particular, the negative finding in the in vivo assay supports AHTN as not likely to be mutagenic in mammalian systems. These considerations, along with other negative published data, lead to the conclusion that both AHTN and HHCB do not have significant potential to act as genotoxic carcinogens.

Clastogenic activity in urine of workers occupationally exposed to pesticides.

Genotoxicity in the urine of orchardists occupationally exposed to pesticides was investigated. Urine samples were obtained during pre-spraying and spraying periods from 22 non-smoking orchardists who spray large amounts of pesticides during the fruit growing season. For comparison purposes, urine was collected from 11 non-smoking personnel at an agricultural research station located near the application site and from 21 non-smoking individuals (reference controls) in a non-agricultural area. Organic material was isolated from urine by preparative reversed-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography, and assayed for clastogenic activity using Chinese hamster ovary cells. Urine samples collected during the pre-spraying period showed no significant differences in clastogenic activity compared to that found for the reference control group. However, clastogenic activity of urine specimens collected during the spraying period was significantly elevated (p less than 0.001) for the highly-exposed orchardists, but not for the research station personnel. Clastogenicity of orchardists' urine was observed within 8 h of pesticide application.

An intestinal cell-mediated chromosome aberration test for the detection of genotoxic agents.

The use of rat-liver S9 in genotoxicity tests may not reflect true metabolism by whole cells, particularly cells of target organs. We have tested mucosal cells of the mouse small intestine for the capacity to mediate activation/inactivation of chemical carcinogens. Mucosal cells were isolated by pronase digestion. Three million cells were co-cultured with Chinese hamster ovary fibroblasts during a 3-h exposure to chemical clastogens. In the presence of the mucosal cells, aflatoxin B1 (100 microM) was activated to produce chromosome aberrations in 30% of Chinese hamster ovary cell metaphases. 4-Nitroquinoline 1-oxide was deactivated by intestinal cells, while benzo[a]pyrene and dimethylbenz[a]anthracene were not activated by the cells. The clastogenicity of the phenolic compounds caffeic acid (0.28 mg/ml) and clorogenic acid (0.25 mg/ml) was eliminated by the mouse intestinal preparation. The pyrrolizidine alkaloid monocrotaline was activated by intestinal cells. The results suggest the presence of specific activation and deactivation enzymes in the intestinal mucosa. The intestine cell-mediated chromosome aberration test could provide a means to measure tissue-specific activation and deactivation capabilities.

Evaluation of potential genotoxicity of pulsed electric and electromagnetic fields used for bone growth stimulation.

Medical devices emitting pulsed electric and electromagnetic fields have been found to be effective for a number of clinical applications including stimulation of bone and tissue growth. To determine whether pulsed fields of the type used in these clinical applications present a mutagenic hazard, electric and electromagnetic fields at two exposure levels were tested in the Ames test, CHO cell chromosomal aberration assay, BALB/3T3 cell transformation assay and unscheduled DNA synthesis assay in primary rat hepatocytes. For both field types, initial and independent repeat studies were performed for each assay at both clinical and supra clinical doses. In all assays, the results show a lack of cytotoxic, transforming and mutagenic activity. The data suggest that pulsed electric and electromagnetic fields of the type and dose levels used in bone growth stimulation lack mutagenic and transforming activity.

Re-evaluation of the mutagenic potential of quinacrine dihydrochloride dihydrate.

Quinacrine has been used for voluntary female non-surgical sterilization for its ability to produce tubal occlusion. Safety issues regarding quinacrine have been raised because it has been shown to intercalate with DNA. Therefore, safety issues need to be resolved by appropriate toxicology studies to support a review for human transcervical use. Such toxicology studies include mutagenicity assays. Here we report an evaluation of the genotoxicity of quinacrine dihydrochloride dihydrate (QH) using a battery of assays. In the bacterial mutagenicity assay, QH was strongly positive in Salmonella typhimurium tester strain TA1537 with and without S9-activation and in S. typhimurium tester strain TA98 with S9-activation; QH was also strongly positive in Escherichia coli WP2 uvrA without S9-activation. QH was not mutagenic in S. typhimurium tester strains TA100 and TA1535 with and without S9-activation. QH was mutagenic in the mouse lymphoma assay in the absence of S9-activation. QH was clastogenic in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, with and without S9-activation. QH was negative for polyploidy in the same chromosome aberration test. Using a triple intraperitoneal injection treatment protocol in both male and female mice, QH was negative in the in vivo mouse micronucleated erythrocyte (micronucleus) assay. These results confirm that QH is mutagenic and clastogenic in vitro and suggest a potential risk to human health due to QH exposure after intrauterine exposure.

Unscheduled DNA synthesis tests. A report of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Gene-Tox Program.

The utility of unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) testing for screening potentially hazardous chemicals was evaluated using the published papers and technical reports available to the UDS Work Group. A total of 244 documents were reviewed. Based on criteria defined in advance for evaluation of the results, 169 were rejected. From the 75 documents accepted, results were reviewed for 136 chemicals tested using autoradiographic approaches and for 147 chemicals tested using liquid scintillation counting (LSC) procedures; 38 chemicals were tested by both approaches to measure UDS. Since there were no documents available that provided detailed recommendations of UDS screening protocols or criteria for evaluating the results, the UDS Work Group presents suggested protocols and evaluation criteria suitable for measuring and evaluating UDS by autoradiography in primary rat hepatocytes and diploid human fibroblasts and by the LSC approach in diploid human fibroblasts. UDS detection is an appropriate system for inclusion in carcinogenicity and mutagenicity testing programs, because it measures the repair of DNA damage induced by many classes of chemicals over the entire mammalian genome. However, for this system to be utilized effectively, appropriate metabolic activation systems for autoradiographic measurements of UDS in human diploid fibroblasts must be developed, the nature of hepatocyte-to-hepatocyte variability in UDS responses must be determined, and the three suggested protocols must be thoroughly evaluated by using them to test a large number of coded chemicals of known in vivo mutagenicity and carcinogenicity.

An evaluation of musk xylene in a battery of genotoxicity tests.

Musk xylene (CAS no. 81-15-2), a synthetic musk fragrance ingredient, was evaluated in a battery of short-term genotoxicity tests that included the mouse lymphoma assay, an in vitro cytogenetics assay in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, the in vitro unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) assay in primary rat hepatocytes and an in vivo UDS assay. Musk xylene gave uniformly negative results in these genotoxicity tests. These observation, combined with previously reported negative Ames tests, suggest a non-genotoxic mechanism for the induction of mouse liver tumours by musk xylene.

An evaluation of genotoxicity tests with Musk ketone.

Musk ketone, a synthetic musk fragrance ingredient that has been found in river water, fish and breast milk, was evaluated for potential genotoxicity in a battery of short-term tests. The mouse lymphoma assay was conducted at musk ketone concentrations ranging from 700 to 4000 micrograms/ml and 2.0 to 35 micrograms/ml in the absence and presence of rat liver S-9, respectively. No increased mutant frequencies were noted. An in vitro cytogenetics assay in Chinese hamster ovary cells was conducted at musk ketone concentrations ranging from 4.3 to 34 micrograms/ml and 1.25 to 10 micrograms/ml in the absence and presence of rat liver S-9, respectively. On the basis of the non-reproducibility of a statistically significant increase at a single concentration and no increases in other test systems, musk ketone was concluded to be negative for chromosome aberrations. An in vitro unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) assay was conducted in primary rat hepatocytes at musk ketone concentrations between 0.5 and 5.0 micrograms and 50 micrograms/ml. No increases in net nuclear grain counts were noted. Musk ketone did not show genotoxic potential based on the negative results in the mouse lymphoma, in vitro cytogenetics and in vitro UDS assays.