Manila grass (Zoysia matrella) Zoy m 1 allergen may contribute to allergic sensitization in tropical/subtropical regions due to extensive cross-reactivity with other group-1 grass pollen allergens.

BACKGROUND: Pollen of grasses in Chloridoideae and Panicoideae subfamilies is a major source of grass group-1 allergens in tropical/subtropical areas. Previously, most studies of subtropical grass pollen allergens have focused on Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass-Chloridoideae) and Sorghum halepense (Johnson grass-Panicoideae). However, little information is available about allergenicity of pollen from Zoysia matrella (Manila grass or Zoysia grass-Chloridoideae), which is among the most popular turfgrasses in tropical/subtropical areas. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the IgE reactivity and cross-reactivity of grass group-1 allergen from Z. matrella. In addition, the clinical relevance of Z. matrella in comparison with other species was assessed. METHODS: IgE reactivity and cross-reactivity between recombinant proteins of group-1 allergen from Z. matrella (Zoy m 1) and C. dactylon (Cyn d 1) were determined by ELISA and immunoblot assays. Clinical relevance of Z. matrella pollen in Thai atopic patients was assessed using its pollen crude extract for skin-prick test, in comparison with extracts from four other pollen species. RESULTS: The Zoy m 1 had high IgE binding and could interfere with binding to C. dactylon crude extract. In addition, Z. matrella pollen extract elicited positive skin-prick test results comparable to previously reported allergenic species. Group-1 grass pollen allergen was confirmed to be a major allergen from Z. matrella among Thai atopic patients and was officially designated Zoy m 1.0101. CONCLUSIONS: Zoy m 1 allergen is a major allergen from Z. matrella that cross-reacts with other group-1 grass pollen allergens in the tropical/subtropical region.

Functional characterization of metallothionein-like genes from Physcomitrella patens: expression profiling, yeast heterologous expression, and disruption of PpMT1.2a gene.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Physcomitrella patens contains four metallothionein-like genes. Three were shown to confer metal tolerance in yeast. Transcript profiling suggests their roles in senescence and reproductive development or cadmium and oxidative stress. Metallothioneins (MTs) have been suggested to play various roles including metal detoxification, nutrient remobilization, ROS scavenging, stress tolerance, and plant development. However, little is known about the forms and functions of MTs in bryophytes. The moss Physcomitrella patens genome was found to contain four MT-like genes. Amino acid sequence composition showed that the P. patens MTs (PpMTs) were clustered with Type 1 plant MTs, and could be further classified into two sub-types, herein referred to as sub-type 1: PpMT1.1a and PpMT1.1b and sub-type 2: PpMT1.2a and PpMT1.2b. Transcript abundance of PpMT1.1b and PpMT1.2b was upregulated in the gametophore compared to protonema, and all, except PpMT1.2a, were highly induced in senescing gametophytes. PpMT1.1a and PpMT1.1b transcripts were upregulated in protonema treated with cadmium and hydrogen peroxide. Unlike many higher plant MTs, the PpMT transcript abundance was not strongly induced in response to copper and zinc. These results suggest that PpMTs may play a role in protecting P. patens from cadmium and oxidative stress and may be involved in tissues senescence and reproductive development. The PpMTs, except PpMT1.2b, were also able to confer metal tolerance and accumulation when heterologously expressed in the ∆cup1 yeast. A P. patens mutant lacking PpMT1.2a through targeted gene disruption was generated. However, it did not show any alteration in growth phenotypes under senescence-induced conditions or hypersensitivity to cadmium, copper, zinc, H2O2, and NaCl stresses. Further characterization of additional P. patens mutants lacking single or multiple PpMTs may provide insight into the physiological roles of bryophytic MTs.

Group-1 Grass Pollen Allergens with Near-Identical Sequences Identified in Species of Subtropical Grasses Commonly Found in Southeast Asia.

Background and objectives: Group-1 grass allergens or beta-expansins (EXPBs) are major allergens from pollen of all grass species. Previous studies showed that they are highly conserved (64-85%) in Pooideae species, which are found mostly in the temperate regions. However, the information about group-1 allergens from common grass species in subtropical areas is still lacking. This study aimed to assess the sequence diversity of group-1 grass pollen allergens in subtropical areas, especially in Southeast Asia. Materials and Methods: Group-1 allergens were cloned from pollen of eight grass species using a single set of primers. Sequences were analyzed and IgE and IgG4 binding regions were compared to the previously reported epitopes in homologous EXPBs. The phylogenetic analysis was used to assess the relationship between sequences of these species and previously characterized EXPBs. Moreover, three-dimensional structure of the EXPB was modeled based on homology to Zea m 1. Results: Sequences from eight grass species were nearly identical. It is conceivable that the primers used for cDNA amplification detected the same isoform in different species. In fact, the deduced amino acid sequences shared 97.79-100% identity with each other and 15/819 polymorphic nucleotide positions were identified. The predicted structure showed that the IgE and IgG4 epitopes and polymorphic residues were located in both domains 1 and 2. The dendrogram presents clustering of class A EXPBs into four groups corresponding to the grass subfamilies. Conclusions: This study identified the allergens with near-identical sequences from different grass species. This isoform could be the major cross-reacting allergenic protein from commonly found grass species.

Amaranthus species around Bangkok, Thailand and the release of allergenic proteins from their pollens.

BACKGROUND: Pollen of Amaranthus L., commonly known as careless weed or Phak-khom in Thai, has become one of the major causes of airway allergy in many countries including Thailand. Despite its recognized importance, there is no available information about which Amaranthus species are producing allergenic pollen more likely to affect Thai patients. Furthermore, only allergenic proteins released from pollen can cause allergy. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to survey species of Amaranthus found in Bangkok and to investigate the impact of water on pollen damage and protein release from Amaranthus pollens. METHODS: Amaranthus inflorescences were sampled and identified using the identification key provided in "Flora of Thailand". Shed pollens were collected on day 1, 3 and 7 after shedding. Ten mg of pollens in distilled water including damaged pollens were counted under a light microscope. In addition, supernatant was analyzed for concentration of proteins released from pollens using Bradford's assay. Profiles of released proteins and IgE binding proteins were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot. RESULTS: Three species of Amaranthus-A. hybridus, A. spinosus, and A. viridis were identified. SDS-PAGE analysis revealed at least twelve protein bands with MW ranging from 10 to 80 kDa. Water caused more damage to pollens and higher amount of proteins were recovered from pollens 1 day after shedding than from 3- and 7-days old pollens. The results of Western blot showed IgE-bound proteins with MW ranging from 30 to 50 kDa. CONCLUSIONS: Water could damage pollens and time after shedding and significantly affected the amount of allergenic proteins released from pollen.

Airborne pollen survey in Bangkok, Thailand: A 35-year update.

BACKGROUND: Pollen allergy is a growing global health issue. While airborne pollen counts are reported daily in several countries, such information is lacking in Thailand. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to survey airborne pollens at five sites in Bangkok, comparing data with the previous study performed 35 years ago in 1980. METHODS: Sample collection was done using the ROTOROD® sampler by exposing the rods for one hour each day twice a week from May 2012-April 2013. RESULTS: Overall, we found that the average pollen count was relatively high throughout the year, at an average of 242 grains/m3. The highest peak was found in September (700 grains/m3). Interestingly, we found that the pollen count was noticeably lower in 2012-2013 when compared to the 1980 study. We also observed the approximate shift of pollen peaks about one to two months earlier in the 2012-2013 study. However, the major groups of airborne pollens did not change significantly. Grass, sedge, amaranthus pollens and fern spores still dominated. The unidentified pollen group was the only group with a higher pollen count when compared to the previous study.

Incidence of grass and weed sensitization in Bangkok, Thailand: a clinical study.

Background: Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a prevalent public health concern globally, significantly impacting quality of life. In Thailand, the prevalence of AR is rising, with grass and weed pollen identified as primary outdoor triggers. Objectives: This study aimed to (1) assess patterns of pollen sensitization in Thai AR patients and (2) investigate correlations between demographics/clinical data and SPT results. Methods: A total of 121 individuals aged ≥18 years with clinically diagnosed AR were recruited. Skin prick testing (SPT) was performed using a panel of commonly encountered tropical grass and weed pollen extracts. SPT wheal sizes and clinical symptom scores were recorded. Correlations between SPT outcomes and symptom scores were analyzed. Results: Among the participants, 104 (85.95%) exhibited positive SPT reactions to at least one pollen type. Nutsedge (76/121), para grass (57/121), and Bermuda grass (48/121) were the most frequently identified allergens. Hurricane grass elicited the strongest reaction, evidenced by the highest average wheal size (6.2 mm). Poly-sensitization was observed in 77 (63.6%) of the SPT-positive individuals, with most cases involving two different pollen extracts (35/77). Notably, AR severity positively correlated with both average wheal size and the number of positive SPT tests. Conclusion: This study highlights nutsedge, para grass, and Bermuda grass as major allergenic pollen sources for Thai AR patients. Including nutsedge, hurricane grass, and careless weed in clinical SPT panels is recommended for improved diagnostic accuracy. Additionally, the positive correlation between AR severity and pollen reaction strength emphasizes the importance of implementing patient education and avoidance strategies.

Innate immune responses activated in Arabidopsis roots by microbe-associated molecular patterns.

Despite the fact that roots are the organs most subject to microbial interactions, very little is known about the response of roots to microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs). By monitoring transcriptional activation of beta-glucuronidase reporters and MAMP-elicited callose deposition, we show that three MAMPs, the flagellar peptide Flg22, peptidoglycan, and chitin, trigger a strong tissue-specific response in Arabidopsis thaliana roots, either at the elongation zone for Flg22 and peptidoglycan or in the mature parts of the roots for chitin. Ethylene signaling, the 4-methoxy-indole-3-ylmethylglucosinolate biosynthetic pathway, and the PEN2 myrosinase, but not salicylic acid or jasmonic acid signaling, play major roles in this MAMP response. We also show that Flg22 induces the cytochrome P450 CYP71A12-dependent exudation of the phytoalexin camalexin by Arabidopsis roots. The phytotoxin coronatine, an Ile-jasmonic acid mimic produced by Pseudomonas syringae pathovars, suppresses MAMP-activated responses in the roots. This suppression requires the E3 ubiquitin ligase COI1 as well as the transcription factor JIN1/MYC2 but does not rely on salicylic acid-jasmonic acid antagonism. These experiments demonstrate the presence of highly orchestrated and tissue-specific MAMP responses in roots and potential pathogen-encoded mechanisms to block these MAMP-elicited signaling pathways.

Wind-pollination and the roles of pollen allergenic proteins.

Over the past few decades, there has been an explosion of understanding of the molecular nature of major allergens contained within pollens from the most important allergenic plant species. Most major allergens belong to only a few protein families. Protein characteristics, cross-reactivity, structures, and IgE binding epitopes have been determined for several allergens. These efforts have led to significant improvements in specific immunotherapy, yet there has been little discussion about the physiological functions of these proteins. Even with large amounts of available information about allergenic proteins from pollens, the incidence of pollen allergy continuously increases worldwide. The reason for this increase is unclear and is most likely due to a combination of factors. One important culprit might be a change in the pollen itself. Knowledge about pollen biology and how pollen is changing as a result of more extreme environmental conditions might improve our understanding of the disease. This review focuses on the characteristics of plants producing allergenic pollens that are relevant to pollen allergy, including the phylogenetic relationships, pollen dispersal distances, amounts of pollen produced, amounts of protein in each type of pollen, and how allergenic proteins are released from pollens. In addition, the physiological roles of major allergenic protein families will be discussed to help us understand why some of these proteins become allergens and why GMO plants with hypoallergenic pollens may not be successful.

Not Just a Banana: The Extent of Fruit Cross-Reactivity and Reaction Severity in Adults with Banana Allergy.

This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the prevalence and clinical characteristics of cross-reactivity and co-allergy to other plant foods among adult patients with IgE-mediated banana allergy in Thailand. A structured questionnaire was used to assess clinical reactivity, and cross-reactivity diagnoses were based on reactions occurring within 2 years of banana allergy onset, within 3 h of intake, and confirmed by allergists. Among the 133 participants, the most commonly associated plant foods with clinical reactions were kiwi (83.5%), avocado (71.1%), persimmon (58.8%), grapes (44.0%), and durian (43.6%). Notably, 26.5% of the reported reactions to other plant foods were classified as severe. These findings highlight the common occurrence of cross-reactivity/co-allergy to other plant foods in banana-allergic patients, with a significant proportion experiencing severe reactions. Travelers to tropical regions should be aware of this risk and advised to avoid specific banana cultivars and plant foods with reported high cross-reactivity. The inclusion of self-injectable epinephrine in the management plan for patients with primary banana allergy should be considered due to the substantial proportion of reported severe reactions and the wide range of clinical cross-reactivity and co-allergy observed.

Plant Stress Scenarios Differentially Affect Expression and IgE Reactivity of Grass Group-1 Allergen (ß-Expansin) in Maize and Rice Pollen.

Grass pollen is among the most common outdoor aeroallergens eliciting pollen allergies throughout the world. Grass group-1 allergen or ß-expansin is recognized as a major pollen allergen, particularly in the grass family Poaceae. Expression of ß-expansin has been shown to be dynamic and can be influenced by environmental stresses. This study evaluated the relative expression of ß-expansin and IgE-binding ability of crude pollen extract protein of rice and maize under three different stress conditions: flood, salt, and drought. After 1 week of treatments, anthers containing pollen were collected followed by RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis. To evaluate relative expression, qRT-PCR was performed using specific primers for ß-expansin and reference genes. Physiological characteristics of treated and untreated maize and rice: plant height; fresh weight of anthers; number of inflorescences, anthers, and pollen grains were also recorded. To assess IgE-binding ability of proteins in rice pollen extracts, soluble crude proteins were extracted and IgE immunoblot and ELISA were performed using serum samples from grass-allergic subjects and healthy control donors. Results showed that plant height, fresh weight of anthers, number of inflorescences, anthers, and pollen grains of both maize and rice decreased significantly under drought stress conditions, but not in other conditions. Expression of ß-expansin in pollen of rice showed an apparent increase in all stress treatments relative to control samples. In contrast, a significant decrease of ß-expansin expression was detected in maize pollen under all stress-treated conditions. IgE-reactive protein bands from rice pollen extract proteins were ~30 kDa, as expected of the grass-group 1 protein. The intensity of IgE-reactive protein bands and the level of IgE to rice pollen proteins showed significant differences among stress conditions. In conclusion, environmental stresses-flood, salt, and drought, can elicit a change of ß-expansin expression and IgE reactivity to grass group-1 pollen allergens. Changes in expression level of this gene likely reflected its importance during stress. However, the response is highly dependent on different schemes employed by each plant species.

Exploring the effects of seasons, diurnal cycle, and heights on airborne pollen load in a Southeast Asian atmospheric condition.

Introduction: Aeropollen can induce detrimental effects, particularly in respiratory airways. Monitoring local aeropollen is essential for the management of pollen allergic patients in each area. However, without resources for constant monitoring, pollen counts are subjected to biases imposed by the choices of sampling season, time of collection, and location. Therefore, the effects of these factors must be better understood. This study investigated the dynamics of aeropollen types through seasonal variation, diurnal cycle and different heights from the ground in Bangkok, Thailand. Methods: Aeropollen samples were collected for 12 months at the Faculty of Science, Mahidol University in Bangkok, using a RotoRod Sampler®. For the investigation of diurnal effect, pollen was collected at 7 a.m., 10 a.m., 1 p.m., 4 p.m., and 7 p.m. For the study of height effect, data were collected at 2, 10, and 18 meters above ground. Results and discussion: This is the first study of the effects of diurnal cycle and height variation on airborne pollen count in Southeast Asia. The results showed the highest concentration of aeropollen was observed in November, which was at the beginning of the northeast monsoon season in Bangkok, whereas the lowest concentration was recorded in July (rainy season). Interestingly, the lowest airborne pollen concentration recorded in July was greater than the high level of most standards. Grass pollen was found as the major aeropollen. The highest total pollen concentration was detected at 1 p.m. The maximum pollen quantity was detected at 10 meters from the ground. However, the total aeropollen concentration was extremely high (>130 grains/m3) at all elevated heights compared to other studies that mostly found at lower height (approximately 1-2 m above ground). The result suggested that pollen concentrations of most pollen types increased as height increased. This study also illustrated the correlation between aeropollen quantity and local meteorological factors. Conclusion: This aeropollen survey reported that pollen concentration and diversity were affected by seasonal variation, diurnal cycle, and height from the ground. Understanding these relationships can help with predictions of aeropollen type and quantity.

Plant growth-promoting properties of Streptomyces spp. isolates and their impact on mung bean plantlets' rhizosphere microbiome.

Phytophthora is an important, highly destructive pathogen of many plants, which causes considerable crop loss, especially durians in Thailand. In this study, we selectively isolated Streptomyces from the rhizosphere soil with a potent anti-oomycete activity against Phytophthora palmivora CbP03. Two strains (SNN087 and SNN289) demonstrated exceptional plant growth-promoting properties in pot experiment. Both strains promoted mung bean (Vigna radiate) growth effectively in both sterile and non-sterile soils. Metagenomic analysis revealed that Streptomyces sp. SNN289 may modify the rhizosphere microbial communities, especially promoting microbes beneficial for plant growth. The relative abundance of bacterial genera Bacillus, Sphingomonas, Arthrobacter, and Pseudarthrobacter, and fungal genera Coprinellus and Chaetomium were noticeably increased, whereas a genus Fusarium was slightly reduced. Interestingly, Streptomyces sp. SNN289 exhibited an exploratory growth, which allows it to survive in a highly competitive environment. Based on whole genome sequence analysis combined with an ANI and dDDH values, this strain should be classifiable as a new species. Functional annotation was also used to characterize plant-beneficial genes in SNN087 and SNN289 genomes for production of siderophores, 3-indole acetic acid (IAA), ammonia, and solubilized phosphate. AntiSMASH genome analysis and preliminary annotation revealed biosynthetic gene clusters with possible secondary metabolites. These findings emphasize the potential for application of strain SNN289 as a bioinoculant for sustainable agricultural practice.

How and Where Periglandula Fungus Interacts with Different Parts of Ipomoea asarifolia.

Periglandula is a fungal genus that is associated with plants in the family Convolvulaceae. They produce medicinally important constituents called ergot alkaloids, which are stored in their host plants. Previously, the fungi were reported to mainly interact with young leaves and seeds of Convolvulaceae species. However, knowledge about how ergot alkaloid-producing fungi interact with their host plants is still lacking. Therefore, we investigated the interaction of Periglandula fungus with different plant parts of Ipomoea asarifolia, using molecular, histochemical, anatomical and micromorphological techniques. Our findings confirm the presence of Periglandula ipomoeae on six out of the eight plant parts examined (young folded leaves, mature leaves, flower buds, mature flowers, young seeds and mature seeds). The fungus was mostly distributed along external plant surfaces, and particularly on areas that were relatively unexposed. Our results suggest that the density of fungal mycelium varies depending on glandular trichome density and the growth stage of the host plant. Detection of the fungus in the flowers of its host plant, for the first time, fills a missing link in understanding how vertical transmission of Periglandula species occurs.

The Study of the Kinetics of Metalaxyl Accumulation and Dissipation in Durian (Durio zibethinus L.) Leaf Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Technique.

Metalaxyl is an effective approach to control Phytophthora palmivora infection in durian plantation. However, inappropriate metalaxyl usage may increase production cost, pathogen with fungicide resistance, and environmental toxicity. This study established and validated a simple and reproducible procedure to measure metalaxyl concentration in the durian leaf using HPLC. Linearity of the detection ranged from 1-100 µg/mL. The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were 0.27 and 0.91 µg/mL, respectively. The extraction method gave recovery rates ranging from 88% to 103%. Durian seedlings were treated with 4 g/L metalaxyl either by foliar spray or soil drench. The highest metalaxyl accumulation in durian leaf was found between 6-24 h after treatment and persisted above its effective concentration at least 60 days after foliar application. The dissipation pattern fit to a first-order kinetics equation showed a half-life of 16.50 days. Soil drenching led to eight times higher metalaxyl concentrations in plants than foliar spraying and caused plant death within 15 days after application. These results suggest that foliar spraying of 4 g/L metalaxyl or soil drenching at a lower concentration every two months is sufficient in controlling P. palmivora infection in durian seedlings.

Novel salivary gland allergens from tropical mosquito species and IgE reactivity in allergic patients.

BACKGROUND: Mosquito allergy is common in tropical countries but remains under-diagnosed. This may be due to the lack of knowledge and diagnostic tools for tropical mosquito allergens. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to characterize allergens from tropical mosquito species and investigate IgE reactivity in mosquito-allergic patients to the salivary gland proteins from these mosquitoes. METHODS: Salivary gland extract (SGE) from 4 mosquito species, highly distributed in the tropics, including Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Culex quinquefasciatus, and Anopheles dirus b, were studied. SGE-specific IgE and IgG ELISA were developed, and serum from 64 mosquito-allergic and 22 non-allergic healthy control subjects was assayed. Further investigations using IgE-immunoblots followed by mass spectrometry analysis were performed to identify and characterize allergens from each species. RESULTS: Mosquito-allergic subjects have detectable serum IgE to SGE derived from local mosquito species, while the IgE levels to Aedes communis using commercially available ELISA were mostly minimal. IgE-immunoblot analysis and mass spectrometry identified 5 novel mosquito allergens from A. albopictus (Aed al 2, Aed al 3), C. quinquefasciatus (Cul q 2.01, Cul q 3), and A. dirus b (Ano d 2). Interestingly, 4 of the 5 new allergens belong to the D7 protein family. CONCLUSIONS & CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Five novel allergens from 3 tropical mosquito species were characterized. The majority of mosquito-allergic subjects who live in the tropics have IgE reactivity to these allergens. Our study paves the way for the development of diagnostic tests, component-resolved diagnostics, and future immunotherapy for mosquito allergy in tropical countries.

International expert consensus on the management of allergic rhinitis (AR) aggravated by air pollutants: Impact of air pollution on patients with AR: Current knowledge and future strategies.

Allergic rhinitis affects the quality of life of millions of people worldwide. Air pollution not only causes morbidity, but nearly 3 million people per year die from unhealthy indoor air exposure. Furthermore, allergic rhinitis and air pollution interact. This report summarizes the discussion of an International Expert Consensus on the management of allergic rhinitis aggravated by air pollution. The report begins with a review of indoor and outdoor air pollutants followed by epidemiologic evidence showing the impact of air pollution and climate change on the upper airway and allergic rhinitis. Mechanisms, particularly oxidative stress, potentially explaining the interactions between air pollution and allergic rhinitis are discussed. Treatment for the management of allergic rhinitis aggravated by air pollution primarily involves treating allergic rhinitis by guidelines and reducing exposure to pollutants. Fexofenadine a non-sedating oral antihistamine improves AR symptoms aggravated by air pollution. However, more efficacy studies on other pharmacological therapy of coexisting AR and air pollution are currently lacking.

Phytohormone priming elevates the accumulation of defense-related gene transcripts and enhances bacterial blight disease resistance in cassava.

Cassava bacterial blight (CBB) disease caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam) is a severe disease in cassava worldwide. In addition to causing significant cassava yield loss, CBB disease has not been extensively studied, especially in terms of CBB resistance genes. The present research demonstrated the molecular mechanisms underlining the defense response during Xam infection in two cassava cultivars exhibiting different degrees of disease resistance, Huay Bong60 (HB60) and Hanatee (HN). Based on gene expression analysis, ten of twelve putative defense-related genes including, leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinases (LRR-RLKs), resistance (R), WRKY and pathogenesis-related (PR) genes, were differentially expressed between these two cassava cultivars during Xam infection. The up-regulation of defense-related genes observed in HB60 may be the mechanism required for the reduction of disease severity in the resistant cultivar. Interestingly, priming with salicylic acid (SA) or methyl jasmonate (MeJA) for 24 h before Xam inoculation could enhance the defense response in both cassava cultivars. The disease severity was decreased 10% in the resistant cultivar (HB60) and was remarkably reduced 21% in the susceptible cultivar (HN) by SA/MeJA priming. Priming with Xam inoculation modulated cassava4.1_013417, cassava4.1_030866 and cassava4.1_020555 (highest similarity to MeWRKY59, MePR1 and AtPDF2.2, respectively) expression and led to enhanced resistance of the susceptible cultivar in the second infection. The putative cis-regulatory elements were predicted in an upstream region of these three defense-related genes. The different gene expression levels in these genes between the two cultivars were due to the differences in cis-regulatory elements in their promoter regions. Taken together, our study strongly suggested that the induction of defense-related genes correlated with defense resistance against Xam infection, and exogenous application of SA or MeJA could elevate the defense response in both cultivars of cassava. This finding should pave the way for management to reduce yield loss from disease and genetic improvement in cassava.

Physiological and Genetic Analyses of Arabidopsis Thaliana Growth Responses to Electroporation.

Stress-induced effect on Arabidopsis thaliana seeds due to high-intensity electrical pulses is described. The pulsed electric field (PEF) treatment system was constructed under the concept of electroporation to deliver 10-nanosecond, 5-Hz pulse train with the energy density per pulse up to 4 kJ ·kg (-1). The analysis of the growth responses revealed that the optimal specific energy of  âˆ¼  1 kJ · kg (-1) delivered the positive effect on the early growth with significant enhancement in the germination percentage and leaf area expansion. The same treatment energy, in addition, contributed to the higher level of the gene expression at nearly tenfold (PAD3 and PR1) compared with untreated control. Such optimistic evidences suggest that the PEF treatment may have practical applications such as to stimulate the delayed germination in preserved economical crops and should be preferred over chemical treatments due to its short-term effect.