Blocking NS3-NS4B interaction inhibits dengue virus in non-human primates.

Dengue is a major health threat and the number of symptomatic infections caused by the four dengue serotypes is estimated to be 96 million1 with annually around 10,000 deaths2. However, no antiviral drugs are available for the treatment or prophylaxis of dengue. We recently described the interaction between non-structural proteins NS3 and NS4B as a promising target for the development of pan-serotype dengue virus (DENV) inhibitors3. Here we present JNJ-1802-a highly potent DENV inhibitor that blocks the NS3-NS4B interaction within the viral replication complex. JNJ-1802 exerts picomolar to low nanomolar in vitro antiviral activity, a high barrier to resistance and potent in vivo efficacy in mice against infection with any of the four DENV serotypes. Finally, we demonstrate that the small-molecule inhibitor JNJ-1802 is highly effective against viral infection with DENV-1 or DENV-2 in non-human primates. JNJ-1802 has successfully completed a phase I first-in-human clinical study in healthy volunteers and was found to be safe and well tolerated4. These findings support the further clinical development of JNJ-1802, a first-in-class antiviral agent against dengue, which is now progressing in clinical studies for the prevention and treatment of dengue.

SARS-CoV-2 binding and neutralizing antibody levels after Ad26.COV2.S vaccination predict durable protection in rhesus macaques.

Several COVID-19 vaccines have recently gained authorization for emergency use. Limited knowledge on duration of immunity and efficacy of these vaccines is currently available. Data on other coronaviruses after natural infection suggest that immunity to SARS-CoV-2 might be short-lived, and preliminary evidence indicates waning antibody titers following SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this work, we model the relationship between immunogenicity and protective efficacy of a series of Ad26 vectors encoding stabilized variants of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein in rhesus macaques and validate the analyses by challenging macaques 6 months after immunization with the Ad26.COV2.S vaccine candidate that has been selected for clinical development. We show that Ad26.COV2.S confers durable protection against replication of SARS-CoV-2 in the lungs that is predicted by the levels of Spike-binding and neutralizing antibodies, indicating that Ad26.COV2.S could confer durable protection in humans and immunological correlates of protection may enable the prediction of durability of protection.

A latent pharmacokinetic time profile to model dose-response survival data.

The accelerating rotarod test is a preclinical pharmacodynamic test to assess the effect of a treatment on an animal's motor coordination. Two models are proposed to analyze the dose-response time-to-event data that typically result from such experiments: (1) a linear regression model and (2) an E(max) model with latent drug concentration at the site of action. Both cope with the survival character of the data. The latter model allows a direct comparison of compounds, but raises the question of whether the study design would benefit from the inclusion of additional mice for plasma concentration sampling on the one hand or whether additional time-to-event data without plasma concentration sampling should be ascertained from these additional mice on the other hand. A simulation study explores the impact on operational characteristics of this change of study design.

Differences in nociceptive behavioral performance between C57BL/6J, 129S6/SvEv, B6 129 F1 and NMRI mice.

The interpretation of knockout and transgenic mouse studies in pain research critically depends on detailed knowledge of the performance profile of the background strains. Pain-related behavior was compared between four relevant mouse strains (C57BL/6J, 129S6/SvEv, B6 129 F1 and NMRI mice of both sexes) using an extended test battery that included an unusual variety of assays for thermal and mechanical acute nociception, and inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Strain- and gender-dependent differences were demonstrated in many of these nociceptive assays. Particularly, C57BL and 129 mice, which serve as the default genetic backgrounds for experiments in genetically altered mice, display quite different patterns of nociceptive performance. Compared to C57BL/6J mice, 129S6/SvEv animals are less sensitive to inflammatory pain conditions (thermal sensitivity after carrageenan subplantar injection; flinch behavior after formalin injection), while the opposite is observed in the neuropathic pain condition and the visceral pain model. These data may be of special interest for genetic studies, where issues related to the background phenotype may confound their interpretation.

Combined models for data from in vitro-in vivo correlation experiments.

A method is presented to describe the in vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC) of an extended release drug formulation. This extended release drug product is overencapsulated with immediate release material. The heterogeneity of the capsule is modelled using a combined model of an extended release and an immediate release pharmacokinetic profile. Whereas an IVIVC is conventionally performed using a two-stage procedure, the model uses a one-stage convolution-based method. The method is applied to a Galantamine controlled release formulation, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. The average percentage prediction error indicated a good fit of the new model.

Universal protection against influenza infection by a multidomain antibody to influenza hemagglutinin.

Broadly neutralizing antibodies against highly variable pathogens have stimulated the design of vaccines and therapeutics. We report the use of diverse camelid single-domain antibodies to influenza virus hemagglutinin to generate multidomain antibodies with impressive breadth and potency. Multidomain antibody MD3606 protects mice against influenza A and B infection when administered intravenously or expressed locally from a recombinant adeno-associated virus vector. Crystal and single-particle electron microscopy structures of these antibodies with hemagglutinins from influenza A and B viruses reveal binding to highly conserved epitopes. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that multidomain antibodies targeting multiple epitopes exhibit enhanced virus cross-reactivity and potency. In combination with adeno-associated virus-mediated gene delivery, they may provide an effective strategy to prevent infection with influenza virus and other highly variable pathogens.

Lack of lithium-like behavioral and molecular effects in IMPA2 knockout mice.

Lithium is a potent mood-stabilizing medication in bipolar disorder. Despite 50 years of clinical use, the mechanism of action is unknown. Multiple effects have been attributed to lithium including the uncompetitive inhibition of inositol monophosphatase (IMPase). IMPA2, one of the genes that encode IMPase, is located in a region with linkage to bipolar disorder. Owing to the role of IMPase in cell signaling and the possibility that this enzyme is a target for mood-stabilizing drugs, we generated IMPA2(-/-) mice. Possible involvement of IMPase in complex behaviors related to affective disorders was assessed by monitoring the behavior of the IMPA2(-/-) mice in the forced swim test, the tail suspension test (TST), the elevated zero-maze and open field test. It has been described that chronically lithium-treated mice exhibit reduced immobility time in the forced swim test and decreased exploratory behavior. We found increased rearing of IMPA2(-/-) mice in the open field, suggesting an increased exploratory behavior. Although immobility time of IMPA2(-/-) female but not male mice in the forced swim test was reduced, no difference was found between male and female IMPA2(-/-) and IMPA2(+/+) mice in the TST and overall there was no clear effect of the deletion of IMPA2 on depression-like behavior. Frontal cortex IMPase activity and inositol levels in the IMPA2(-/-) mice did not differ from IMPA2(+/+) mice, but kidney inositol levels were reduced. In conclusion, phenotypic characterization of the IMPA2(-/-) mouse indicates that deleting IMPA2 does not mimic the effects of lithium treatment.

Porcine left atrial and sinoatrial 5-HT(4) receptor-induced responses: fading of the response and influence of development.

1.--In this study, we aimed to characterize in vitro the effects of the benzofuran 5-HT(4) receptor agonists prucalopride, R149402 and R199715 and the indolic agents tegaserod and 5-HT in the atria of young pigs (10-11 weeks) and newborn piglets. 2.--In the paced left atrium of young pigs, only 5-HT results in positive inotropic responses when administered cumulatively (maximal effect relative to isoprenaline=53%, pEC(50)=6.8); however, all agonists showed lusitropic effects. Noncumulative administration results in greater positive inotropic responses for 5-HT and induces moderate positive inotropic responses for the other agonists; these responses fade. 3.--Phosphodiesterase (PDE) enzyme inhibition with 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX; 20 microM) enhances the responses to cumulatively administered 5-HT (maximal effect=89%, pEC(50)=7.7) and reveals clear positive inotropic effects for prucalopride, tegaserod, R149402 and R199715; fading is abolished. The maximal effect of the benzofurans is less pronounced than that of the indoles. 4.--In the spontaneously beating right atrium of young pigs, all agonists show chronotropic activity when administered cumulatively in the absence of IBMX, without fade. Benzofurans behaved as partial agonists compared to 5-HT (maximal effect=54%, pEC(50)=6.5). 5.--In newborns, the inotropic activity of the agonists in the IBMX-treated left atrium was less pronounced than in the young pig; the same applied for the chronotropic response in the right atrium, except for 5-HT. 6.--In conclusion, the atrial responses to 5-HT(4) receptor activation increase in the first months of life; the inotropic response is regulated by PDEs. Prucalopride, R149402 and R199715 are partial agonists compared to 5-HT.

MODELING ANTI-KLH ELISA DATA USING TWO-STAGE AND MIXED EFFECTS MODELS IN SUPPORT OF IMMUNOTOXICOLOGICAL STUDIES.

During preclinical drug development, the immune system is specifically evaluated after prolonged treatment with drug candidates, because the immune system may be an important target system. The response of antibodies against a T-cell-dependent antigen is recommenced by the FDA and EMEA for the evaluation of immunosuppression/enhancement. For that reason, we developed a semiquantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to measure antibodies against keyhole limpet hemocyanin. To our knowledge, the analysis of this kind of data is at this moment not yet fully explored. In this article, we describe two approaches for modeling immunotoxic data using nonlinear models. The first is a two-stage model in which we fit an individual nonlinear model for each animal in the first stage, and the second stage consists of testing possible treatment effects using the individual maximum likelihood estimates obtained in the first stage. In the second approach, the inference about treatment effects is based on a nonlinear mixed model, which accounts for heterogeneity between animals. In both approaches, we use a three-parameter logistic model for the mean structure.

Levetiracetam: relative bioavailability and bioequivalence of a 10% oral solution (750 mg) and 750-mg tablets.

Levetiracetam, an antiepileptic drug, is used worldwide as an adjunctive treatment for partial-onset seizures. The availability of a new oral solution formulation would provide an additional treatment option for patients who have difficulty swallowing tablets. A phase I single-center, randomized, open-label, two-way crossover, single-dose study was conducted to confirm that a 10% oral solution of levetiracetam was bioequivalent to the 750-mg oral tablet and to characterize its pharmacokinetics. Each of 24 healthy subjects received a single oral 750-mg dose of the randomized levetiracetam formulation (7.5 mL of 10% solution or 750-mg tablet) on day 1 and a single oral dose of the alternate formulation on day 8. Serial blood samples were collected from 0 to 36 hours after each dose administration for determination of plasma levetiracetam concentrations. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated, and bioequivalence of the two formulations was evaluated. The mean levetiracetam plasma concentration-time curves and pharmacokinetic parameters essentially were identical for the oral 10% solution and tablet and consistent with previously reported levetiracetam pharmacokinetics. The 90% confidence limits of the geometric mean ratio of the two formulations for area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time 0 to infinity, area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time 0 to last measurable time point, and maximum plasma concentration were within the 80% to 125% range, demonstrating bioequivalence of the two formulations. Both levetiracetam formulations were well tolerated. The levetiracetam 10% oral solution is a bioequivalent, well-tolerated alternative to the tablet formulation in patients who have difficulty swallowing.

A canine model to evaluate efficacy and safety of γ-secretase inhibitors and modulators.

Gamma-secretase, a membrane bound protease which cleaves the transmembrane protein amyloid-ß protein precursor (AßPP), is a therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease. Gamma-secretase inhibitors (GSIs) and modulators (GSMs) are being investigated as potential disease-modifying agents. Preclinical in vivo models to monitor the activity on gamma-secretase are described in different species such as mouse, rat, and guinea pigs. All these models have their value in testing compounds with amyloid lowering properties, however, compound characteristics and pharmacokinetic properties, as well as other species characteristics such as limited sampling volumes of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), recommended the use of a larger, non-rodent animal species. For this purpose, a screening model in dogs was developed for testing GSIs and GSMs. We showed that GSIs and GSMs had a dose- and time-dependent effect on Aß(37), Aß(38), Aß(40), and Aß(42) in CSF. Changes in liver function were evidenced by a transient increase in bilirubin with the GSMs and incidental increases in alanine aminotransferase for GSMs as well as GSIs. Microarray analysis of liver biopsies enabled to elucidate potential mechanisms behind the liver function changes. The relevance of the liver findings should be further evaluated in chronic pre-clinical safety studies and in humans. Based on our data, we can conclude that the dog is a very appropriate species to assess efficacy and safety of compounds which have an effect on AßPP processing such as GSMs, GSIs, and BACE-inhibitors.

Memantine-induced brain activation as a model for the rapid screening of potential novel antipsychotic compounds: exemplified by activity of an mGlu2/3 receptor agonist.

RATIONALE: Schizophrenia is a severe, disabling chronic disorder affecting approximately 1% of the population. Improvements and development of more robust and hopefully predictive screening assays for this disease should enhance the identification and development of novel treatments. The present study describes a rapid and robust method for the testing of potential novel antipsychotics by utilising a simplified [(14)C]2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) autoradiography method following memantine-induced brain activation. METHODS: Male C57BL/6JCRL mice were given vehicle, ketamine or memantine (10, 20 and 30 mg/kg, subcutaneously (s.c.)) and sacrificed 45 min post-[(14 C)]2-DG administration. In subsequent reversal studies, the memantine challenge was further validated with haloperidol (0.32 mg/kg, s.c.) and clozapine (2.5 and 10 mg/kg, s.c.) in parallel with the ketamine model (Duncan et al. 1998a). Lastly, the effects of an mGlu2/3 receptor agonist, LY404039 (10 mg/kg, s.c.), on both ketamine and memantine-induced brain activation was determined. RESULTS: Both N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) antagonists dose-dependently induced significant region-specific increases in 2-DG uptake. Interestingly, memantine elicited a considerably greater brain activation signature with a larger dynamic window than ketamine. The "atypical" antipsychotic clozapine significantly reversed memantine-induced 2-DG uptake whilst the "typical" antipsychotic haloperidol was inactive. Pre-treatment with LY404039 fully reversed both the ketamine- and memantine-induced increase in 2-DG uptake without effects on basal 2-DG uptake. CONCLUSION: This novel pre-clinical imaging methodology displays potential for the screening of compounds targeting the NMDA receptor hypofunction hypothesis of schizophrenia and should assist in developing compounds from the bench to clinic.

Prediction of human oral plasma concentration-time profiles using preclinical data: comparative evaluation of prediction approaches in early pharmaceutical discovery.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Empirically based methods remain one of our tools in human pharmacokinetic predictions. The Dedrick approach and the steady-state plasma drug concentration (C(ss))-mean residence time (MRT) approach are based on the assumption that concentration-time profiles are similar among species, including man, and that curves derived from a variety of animal species can be superimposed after mathematical transformation. In the Dedrick approach the transformation is based on the slope and intercept of the allometric relationship. The C(ss)-MRT approach is based on the implementation of measured animal and predicted human MRT and dose/volume of distribution at steady state (V(ss)). The aims of the present study were to compare the predictive performance of concentration-time profiles obtained by these approaches, to evaluate the prediction of individual pharmacokinetic parameters by these approaches and to further refine these approaches incorporating the experience from our previous work. METHODS: A retrospective analysis using 35 proprietary compounds developed at Johnson & Johnson Pharmaceutical Research and Development was conducted to compare the accuracies of the Dedrick and C(ss)-MRT approaches for predicting oral concentration-time profiles and pharmacokinetic parameters in man. In the first step, input for the transformation was based on simple allometry. Then we assessed whether both methods could be fine-tuned by systematically incorporating correction factors (maximum life span potential, brain weight and plasma protein binding), depending on the interspecies relationship. In addition, for the C(ss)-MRT approach, we used formulas based on multivariate regression analysis as input for the transformation. RESULTS: Inclusion of correction factors significantly improved the profile predictability for the Dedrick and C(ss)-MRT approaches. This was mainly linked to an improved prediction of terminal elimination half-life (t(½)), MRT and the ratio between the maximum plasma concentration and the concentration at the last observed time point (C(max)/C(last)). No significant differences were observed between the Dedrick approach with correction factors, the C(ss)-MRT approach with correction factors and the C(ss)-MRT approach, based on the regression equations. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the dataset evaluated in this study, we demonstrated that human plasma concentration-time profiles and pharmacokinetic parameters could be predicted with the Dedrick and C(ss)-MRT approaches and that if correction factors were implemented, the predictions improved significantly. With the requirement of only a limited preclinical in vivo pharmacokinetic dataset, these empirical methods could offer potential in the early stages of drug discovery.

Application and review of the separate ray model to investigate interaction effects.

In this paper we review the application of the Separate Ray Model to analyze drug combination experiments coming from a fixed ratio design. The idea is the joint fit of separate concentration response curves to each ray under investigation leading to an interaction index for each together with a 95 percent Confidence Interval. The approach is a simple and easy to implement parametric modeling approach and allows estimation and testing of drug interactions based on regularly sampling in the entire space of all combinations going from pure compound A to pure compound B. The analysis is implemented using the SAS/STAT procedure NLMIXED. Two datasets were provided for the modeling exercise. One included different qualitative effects with some rays showing synergy, others antagonism and again others additivity. The second dataset involved the presence of very large synergy together with different observed background effects for the individual rays. The Separate Ray Model is able to handle these practical issues making it a flexible tool to investigate drug interaction experiments using a fixed ratio design.

Selective D1 agonism but not D2 antagonism is reflected in cAMP and cGMP levels in rat CSF.

Cyclic adenosine 3'5'-monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine 3'5'-monophosphate (cGMP) serve as second messengers in several cellular pathways within the central nervous system. In various neurological and psychiatric disorders with known deficits in neurotransmission function, CSF levels of cAMP and/or cGMP in patients were studied. Very little information is currently available on cAMP and cGMP levels in CSF of animals. Moreover, this is the first study on the effects of pharmacological treatment on cAMP and cGMP levels in rat CSF. Effect of systemic treatment with a D1 receptor agonist SKF82958 and a D2 receptor antagonist haloperidol on cAMP and cGMP levels, as well as baseline cAMP and cGMP levels in CSF of rats was determined. A significantly increased cAMP and cGMP level in cisternal CSF of rats systemically treated with the D1 receptor agonist SKF82958 was observed, while when treated with the D2 antagonist haloperidol, no effect on cAMP and only a slight decrease of cGMP was observed after treatment with the highest dose. Determining cAMP and/or cGMP in CSF of experimental animals can serve as a useful tool to study neural processes affected by disease and treatment.

Effects of phosphodiesterase 10 inhibition on striatal cyclic AMP and peripheral physiology in rats.

Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) form a family of enzymes involved in the hydrolysis of cyclic adenosine and guanosine monophosphate (cAMP and cGMP). PDE10A is a member of this family that is almost exclusively expressed in the striatum. Increasing cAMP/cGMP levels via inhibition of PDE10A is under consideration as a novel therapeutic avenue in the discovery of antipsychotics. Papaverine has been used as a pharmacological tool to establish the possible clinical use of PDE10A inhibitors as antipsychotics. Papaverine is known to increase cAMP levels in striatum and to decrease blood pressure, body temperature and locomotor activity after systemic administration. In this study, the effects of papaverine are compared to those of a more specific PDE10A inhibitor MP10. Papaverine raised striatal cAMP levels with hypothermia, hypoactivity and decreased cardiovascular responses. The more selective MP10 had significantly less effects on body temperature and cardiovascular functions, but reduced locomotor activity to a similar extend as papaverine.

The fentanyl/etomidate-anaesthetised beagle (FEAB) dog: a versatile in vivo model in cardiovascular safety research.

The purpose of conducting cardiovascular safety pharmacology studies is to investigate the pharmacological profiles of new molecular entities (NMEs) and provide data that can be used for optimization of a possible new drug, and help make a selection of NMEs for clinical development. An anaesthetised dog preparation has been used for more than two decades by our department to measure multiple cardiovascular and respiratory parameters and to evaluate different scientific models, leading to more in-depth evaluation of drug-induced cardiovascular effects. An anaesthetic regime developed in house (induction with lofentanil, scopolamine and succinylcholine, and maintenance with fentanyl and etomidate) gives us a preparation free of pain and stress, with minimal effects on the cardiovascular system. This anaesthetic regime had minimal influences on circulating catecholamine levels, on the baroreflex sensitivity, and on all measured basal parameters compared to conscious dogs. All parameters were stable for at least 3 h, with acceptable tolerance intervals, evaluated over 99 safety studies with 3 vehicle treatments (saline, 10% and 20% hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin). This translates into a highly sensitive model for detecting possible drug-induced effects of NMEs with different mechanisms of action such as: Ca-, Na-, I(Kr)-, I(Ks)-channel blockers, K- and Ca-channel activators, alpha1- and beta-agonists, and muscarinic antagonists. Fentanyl in combination with etomidate is a successful anaesthetic regime in humans [Stockham, R.J., Stanley, T.H., Pace, N.L., King, K., Groen, F. & Gillmor, S.T. (1987). Induction of anaesthesia with fentanyl or fentanyl plus etomidate in high-risk patients. Journal of Cardiothoracic Anesthesia. 1(1), 19-23.]. In the anaesthetised dog, QT correction factors (Van de Water correction and body temperature correction) and risk factors (total, short-term and long-term instability) have been evaluated, using this regime [Van de Water, A., Verheyen, J., Xhonneux, R. & Reneman, R. (1989). An improved method to correct the QT interval of the electrocardiogram for changes in heart rate. Journal of Pharmacological Methods, 22, 207-217.; van der Linde, H.J., Van Deuren, B., Teisman, A., Towart, R. & Gallacher, D.J. (2008). The effect of changes in core body temperature on the QT interval in beagle dogs: A previously ignored phenomenon, with a method for correction. British Journal of Pharmacology, 154, 1474-1481.; van der Linde, H.J., Van de Water, A., Loots, W., Van Deuren, B., Lu, H.R., Van Ammel, K., et al. (2005) A new method to calculate the beat-to-beat instability of QT duration in drug-induced long QT in anaesthetised dogs. Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods, 52, 168-177.]. Furthermore, this anaesthetic protocol has been used to create different scientific models (long QT, short QT) with different specific end-points (ventricular fibrillation, adrenergic- or pause-dependent TdP) and also their specific precursors: e.g. aftercontractions, phase 2 EADs, phase 3 EADs, DADs, T-wave morphology changes, T-wave alternans, R-on-T, transmural and interventricular dispersion [Gallacher, D.J., Van de Water, A., van der Linde, H.J., Hermans, A.N., Lu, H.R., Towart, R., et al. (2007). In vivo mechanisms precipitating torsade de pointes in canine model of drug-induced long QT1 syndrome. Cardiovascular Research, 76-2, 247-256.]. This paper gives a brief overview of the stability, reproducibility, sensitivity and utility of a well-validated anaesthetised dog model.

Design and analysis of drug combination experiments.

In this paper we present and discuss a novel, simple and easy to implement parametric modeling approach to assess synergy. An extended three parameter log-logistic model is used to analyse the data and calculate confidence intervals of the interaction indices. In addition the model corrects for the bias due to plate-location effects. The analysis is performed with PROC NLMIXED and SAS-code is provided. The approach is illustrated using data coming from an oncology study in which the inhibition effect of a combination of two compounds is studied using 96-well plates and a fixed-ratio design.

Modeling anti-KLH ELISA data using two-stage and mixed effects models in support of immunotoxicological studies.

During preclinical drug development, the immune system is specifically evaluated after prolonged treatment with drug candidates, because the immune system may be an important target system. The response of antibodies against a T-cell-dependent antigen is recommenced by the FDA and EMEA for the evaluation of immunosuppression/enhancement. For that reason, we developed a semiquantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to measure antibodies against keyhole limpet hemocyanin. To our knowledge, the analysis of this kind of data is at this moment not yet fully explored. In this article, we describe two approaches for modeling immunotoxic data using nonlinear models. The first is a two-stage model in which we fit an individual nonlinear model for each animal in the first stage, and the second stage consists of testing possible treatment effects using the individual maximum likelihood estimates obtained in the first stage. In the second approach, the inference about treatment effects is based on a nonlinear mixed model, which accounts for heterogeneity between animals. In both approaches, we use a three-parameter logistic model for the mean structure.

Adjusting pairwise nonparametric equivalence hypothesis tests and confidence intervals for period effects in 3 x 3 crossover trials.

In pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic 3 x 3 crossover trials, average bioequivalence and noninferiority between treatments need to be only assessed pairwise in most cases. Due to the restricted number of subjects in such trials, normal distribution assumptions cannot be checked and frequently outliers are encountered, so that a nonparametric approach is more adequate. Therefore, to assess average bioequivalence or noninferiority, a new method is proposed to derive period adjusted nonparametric confidence intervals for pairwise treatment differences.