Ret Receptor Has Distinct Alterations and Functions in Breast Cancer.

Ret receptor tyrosine kinase is a proto-oncogene that participates in development of various cancers. Several independent studies have recently identified Ret as a key player in breast cancer. Although Ret overexpression and function have been under investigation, mainly in estrogen receptor positive breast cancer, a more comprehensive analysis of the impact of recurring Ret alterations in breast cancer is needed. This review consolidates the current knowledge of Ret alterations and their potential effects in breast cancer. We discuss and integrate data on Ret changes in different breast cancer subtypes and potential function in progression, as well as the participation of distinct Ret network signaling partners in these processes. We propose that it will be essential to define a shared molecular feature of tumors with alteration in Ret receptor, be this at the genetic level or via overexpression in order to design effective therapies to target the Ret pathway. Here we review experimental evidence from basic research and pre-clinical studies concentrating on Ret alterations as potential biomarkers for recurrence, and we discuss the possibility that targeting the Ret pathway might in the future become a treatment for breast cancer.

Comprehensive Molecular Analysis of Disease-Related Genes as First-Tier Test for Early Diagnosis, Classification, and Management of Patients Affected by Nonsyndromic Ichthyosis.

Inherited ichthyoses are a group of clinically and genetically heterogeneous rare disorders of skin keratinization with overlapping phenotypes. The clinical picture and family history are crucial to formulating the diagnostic hypothesis, but only the identification of the genetic defect allows the correct classification. In the attempt to molecularly classify 17 unrelated Italian patients referred with congenital nonsyndromic ichthyosis, we performed massively parallel sequencing of over 50 ichthyosis-related genes. Genetic data of 300 Italian unaffected subjects were also analyzed to evaluate frequencies of putative disease-causing alleles in our population. For all patients, we identified the molecular cause of the disease. Eight patients were affected by autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis associated with ALOX12B, NIPAL4, and TGM1 mutations. Three patients had biallelic loss-of-function variants in FLG, whereas 6/11 males were affected by X-linked ichthyosis. Among the 24 different disease-causing alleles we identified, 8 carried novel variants, including a synonymous TGM1 variant that resulted in a splicing defect. Moreover, we generated a priority list of the ichthyosis-related genes that showed a significant number of rare and novel variants in our population. In conclusion, our comprehensive molecular analysis resulted in an effective first-tier test for the early classification of ichthyosis patients. It also expands the genetic, mutational, and phenotypic spectra of inherited ichthyosis and provides new insight into the current understanding of etiologies and epidemiology of this group of rare disorders.

De Novo Large Deletions in the PHEX Gene Caused X-Linked Hypophosphataemic Rickets in Two Italian Female Infants Successfully Treated with Burosumab.

Pathogenic variants in the PHEX gene cause rare and severe X-linked dominant hypophosphataemia (XLH), a form of heritable hypophosphatemic rickets (HR) characterized by renal phosphate wasting and elevated fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) levels. Burosumab, the approved human monoclonal anti-FGF23 antibody, is the treatment of choice for XLH. The genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity of HR often delays XLH diagnoses, with critical effects on disease course and therapy. We herein report the clinical and genetic features of two Italian female infants with sporadic HR who successfully responded to burosumab. Their diagnoses were based on clinical and laboratory findings and physical examinations. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) of the genes associated with inherited HR and multiple ligation probe amplification (MLPA) analysis of the PHEX and FGF23 genes were performed. While a conventional analysis of the NGS data did not reveal pathogenic or likely pathogenic small nucleotide variants (SNVs) in the known HR-related genes, a quantitative analysis identified two different heterozygous de novo large intragenic deletions in PHEX, and this was confirmed by MLPA. Our molecular data indicated that deletions in the PHEX gene can be the cause of a significant fraction of XLH; hence, their presence should be evaluated in SNV-negative female patients. Our patients successfully responded to burosumab, demonstrating the efficacy of this drug in the treatment of XLH. In conclusion, the execution of a phenotype-oriented genetic test, guided by known types of variants, including the rarest ones, was crucial to reach the definitive diagnoses and ensure our patients of long-term therapy administration.

Aberrant RET expression affects normal mammary gland post-lactation transition, enhancing cancer potential.

RET is a receptor tyrosine kinase with oncogenic potential in the mammary epithelium. Several receptors with oncogenic activity in the breast are known to participate in specific developmental stages. We found that RET is differentially expressed during mouse mammary gland development: RET is present in lactation and its expression dramatically decreases in involution, the period during which the lactating gland returns to a quiescent state after weaning. Based on epidemiological and pre-clinical findings, involution has been described as tumor promoting. Using the Ret/MTB doxycycline-inducible mouse transgenic system, we show that sustained expression of RET in the mammary epithelium during the post-lactation transition to involution is accompanied by alterations in tissue remodeling and an enhancement of cancer potential. Following constitutive Ret expression, we observed a significant increase in neoplastic lesions in the post-involuting versus the virgin mammary gland. Furthermore, we show that abnormal RET overexpression during lactation promotes factors that prime involution, including premature activation of Stat3 signaling and, using RNA sequencing, an acute-phase inflammatory signature. Our results demonstrate that RET overexpression negatively affects the normal post-lactation transition.