Author Correction: Subsets of exhausted CD8+ T cells differentially mediate tumor control and respond to checkpoint blockade.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Subsets of exhausted CD8+ T cells differentially mediate tumor control and respond to checkpoint blockade.

T cell dysfunction is a hallmark of many cancers, but the basis for T cell dysfunction and the mechanisms by which antibody blockade of the inhibitory receptor PD-1 (anti-PD-1) reinvigorates T cells are not fully understood. Here we show that such therapy acts on a specific subpopulation of exhausted CD8+ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs). Dysfunctional CD8+ TILs possess canonical epigenetic and transcriptional features of exhaustion that mirror those seen in chronic viral infection. Exhausted CD8+ TILs include a subpopulation of 'progenitor exhausted' cells that retain polyfunctionality, persist long term and differentiate into 'terminally exhausted' TILs. Consequently, progenitor exhausted CD8+ TILs are better able to control tumor growth than are terminally exhausted T cells. Progenitor exhausted TILs can respond to anti-PD-1 therapy, but terminally exhausted TILs cannot. Patients with melanoma who have a higher percentage of progenitor exhausted cells experience a longer duration of response to checkpoint-blockade therapy. Thus, approaches to expand the population of progenitor exhausted CD8+ T cells might be an important component of improving the response to checkpoint blockade.

Desensitization and remission after peanut sublingual immunotherapy in 1- to 4-year-old peanut-allergic children: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Prior studies of peanut sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) have suggested a potential advantage with younger age at treatment initiation. OBJECTIVE: We studied the safety and efficacy of SLIT for peanut allergy in 1- to 4-year-old children. METHODS: Peanut-allergic 1- to 4-year-old children were randomized to receive 4 mg peanut SLIT versus placebo. Desensitization was assessed by double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge (DBPCFC) after 36 months of treatment. Participants desensitized to at least 443 mg peanut protein discontinued therapy for 3 months and then underwent DBPCFC to assess for remission. Biomarkers were measured at baseline and longitudinally during treatment. RESULTS: Fifty participants (25 peanut SLIT, 25 placebo) with a median age of 2.4 years were enrolled across 2 sites. The primary end point of desensitization was met with actively treated versus placebo participants having a significantly greater median cumulative tolerated dose (4443 mg vs 143 mg), higher likelihood of passing the month 36 DBPCFC (60% vs 0), and higher likelihood of demonstrating remission (48% vs 0). The highest rate of desensitization and remission was seen in 1- to 2-year-olds, followed by 2- to 3-year-olds and 3- to 4-year-olds. Longitudinal changes in peanut skin prick testing, peanut-specific IgG4, and peanut-specific IgG4/IgE ratio were seen in peanut SLIT but not placebo participants. Oropharyngeal itching was more commonly reported by peanut SLIT than placebo participants. Skin, gastrointestinal, upper respiratory, lower respiratory, and multisystem adverse events were similar between treatment groups. CONCLUSION: Peanut SLIT safely induces desensitization and remission in 1- to 4-year-old children, with improved outcomes seen with younger age at initiation.

Open-label study of the efficacy, safety, and durability of peanut sublingual immunotherapy in peanut-allergic children.

BACKGROUND: Studies on the efficacy of peanut sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) are limited. The durability of desensitization after SLIT has not been well described. OBJECTIVE: We sought to evaluate the efficacy and safety of 4-mg peanut SLIT and persistence of desensitization after SLIT discontinuation. METHODS: Challenge-proven peanut-allergic 1- to 11-year-old children were treated with open-label 4-mg peanut SLIT for 48 months. Desensitization after peanut SLIT was assessed by a 5000-mg double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge (DBPCFC). A novel randomly assigned avoidance period of 1 to 17 weeks was followed by the DBPCFC. Skin prick test results immunoglobulin levels, basophil activation test results, TH1, TH2, and IL-10 cytokines were measured longitudinally. Safety was assessed through patient-reported home diaries. RESULTS: Fifty-four participants were enrolled and 47 (87%) completed peanut SLIT and the 48-month DBPCFC per protocol. The mean successfully consumed dose (SCD) during the DBPCFC increased from 48 to 2723 mg of peanut protein after SLIT (P < .0001), with 70% achieving clinically significant desensitization (SCD > 800 mg) and 36% achieving full desensitization (SCD = 5000 mg). Modeled median time to loss of clinically significant desensitization was 22 weeks. Peanut skin prick test; peanut-specific IgE, IgG4, and IgG4/IgE ratio; and peanut-stimulated basophil activation test, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IFN-γ, and IL-10 changed significantly compared with baseline, with changes seen as early as 6 months. Median rate of reaction per dose was 0.5%, with transient oropharyngeal itching being the most common, and there were no dosing symptoms requiring epinephrine. CONCLUSIONS: In this open-label, prospective study, peanut SLIT was safe and induced clinically significant desensitization in most of the children, lasting more than 17 weeks after discontinuation of therapy.

Management of Food Allergies and Food-Related Anaphylaxis.

Importance: An estimated 7.6% of children and 10.8% of adults have IgE-mediated food-protein allergies in the US. IgE-mediated food allergies may cause anaphylaxis and death. A delayed, IgE-mediated allergic response to the food-carbohydrate galactose-α-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal) in mammalian meat affects an estimated 96 000 to 450 000 individuals in the US and is currently a leading cause of food-related anaphylaxis in adults. Observations: In the US, 9 foods account for more than 90% of IgE-mediated food allergies-crustacean shellfish, dairy, peanut, tree nuts, fin fish, egg, wheat, soy, and sesame. Peanut is the leading food-related cause of fatal and near-fatal anaphylaxis in the US, followed by tree nuts and shellfish. The fatality rate from anaphylaxis due to food in the US is estimated to be 0.04 per million per year. Alpha-gal syndrome, which is associated with tick bites, is a rising cause of IgE-mediated food anaphylaxis. The seroprevalence of sensitization to alpha-gal ranges from 20% to 31% in the southeastern US. Self-injectable epinephrine is the first-line treatment for food-related anaphylaxis. The cornerstone of IgE-food allergy management is avoidance of the culprit food allergen. There are emerging immunotherapies to desensitize to one or more foods, with one current US Food and Drug Administration-approved oral immunotherapy product for treatment of peanut allergy. Conclusions and Relevance: IgE-mediated food allergies, including delayed IgE-mediated allergic responses to red meat in alpha-gal syndrome, are common in the US, and may cause anaphylaxis and rarely, death. IgE-mediated anaphylaxis to food requires prompt treatment with epinephrine injection. Both food-protein allergy and alpha-gal syndrome management require avoiding allergenic foods, whereas alpha-gal syndrome also requires avoiding tick bites.

Early infancy dysbiosis in food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome: A prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The microbiome associations of food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome (FPIES) are understudied. We sought to prospectively define the clinical features of FPIES in a birth cohort, and investigate for the evidence of gut dysbiosis. METHODS: We identified children diagnosed with FPIES in the Gastrointestinal Microbiome and Allergic Proctocolitis Study, a healthy infant cohort. Children were assessed and stools were collected at each well child visit. The clinical features of the children with FPIES were summarized. Stool microbiome was analyzed using 16S rRNA sequencing comparing children with and without FPIES. RESULTS: Of the 874 children followed up for 3 years, 8 FPIES cases (4 male) were identified, yielding a cumulative incidence of 0.92%. The most common triggers were oat and rice (n = 3, each) followed by milk (n = 2). The children with FPIES were more likely to have family history of food allergy (50% vs. 15.9% among unaffected, p = .03). The average age of disease presentation was 6 months old. During the first 6 months of life, stool from children with FPIES contained significantly less Bifidobacterium adolescentis, but more pathobionts, including Bacteroides spp. (especially Bacteroides fragilis), Holdemania spp., Lachnobacterium spp., and Acinetobacter lwoffii. The short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing Bifidobacterium shunt was expressed significantly less in the stool from FPIES children. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort, the cumulative incidence over the 3-year study period was 0.92%. During the first 6 months of life, children with FPIES had evidence of dysbiosis and SCFA production pathway was expressed less in their stool, which may play an important role in the pathogenesis of FPIES.

Longitudinal assessment of early growth in children with IgE- and non-IgE-mediated food allergy in a healthy infant cohort.

BACKGROUND: There are conflicting associations reported between food allergies (FAs) and poor growth, with some indication that children with multiple FAs are at highest risk. OBJECTIVE: We analyzed longitudinal weight-for-length (WFL) trajectories from our healthy cohort to evaluate growth in children with IgE-mediated FAs and food protein-induced allergic proctocolitis (FPIAP), a non-IgE-mediated FA. METHODS: Our observational cohort of 903 healthy newborn infants was prospectively enrolled to evaluate the development of FAs. Longitudinal mixed effects modeling was used to compare differences in WFL among children with IgE-FA and FPIAP, compared with unaffected children, through age 2. RESULTS: Among the 804 participants who met inclusion criteria, FPIAP cases had significantly lower WFL than unaffected controls during active disease, which resolved by 1 year of age. In contrast, children with IgE-FA had significantly lower WFL than unaffected controls after 1 year. We also found that children with IgE-FA to cow's milk had significantly lower WFL over the first 2 years of age. Children with multiple IgE-FAs had markedly lower WFL over the first 2 years of age. CONCLUSION: Children with FPIAP have impaired growth during active disease in the first year of age which resolves, whereas children with IgE-FA, particularly those with multiple IgE-FA, have impaired growth more prominently after the first year of age. It may be appropriate to focus nutritional assessment and interventions accordingly during these higher risk periods in these patient populations.

Food aversion and poor weight gain in food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome: A retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome (FPIES) is a form of non-IgE-mediated gastrointestinal food allergy. Insufficient data exist in regard to gastrointestinal history and outcome, particularly comorbidity, family history, food aversion, and poor body weight gain. OBJECTIVE: We sought to identify the gastrointestinal outcomes and related risk factors in FPIES. METHODS: We analyzed the clinical features and gastrointestinal outcomes of patients with FPIES retrospectively at 4 hospitals in Boston. RESULTS: Two hundred three patients with FPIES were identified, including 180 only with acute FPIES, 8 with chronic FPIES, and 15 with both. Oat (34.5%), rice (29.6%), and cow's milk (19.2%) were the most common food triggers. The prevalence rates of personal history with allergic proctocolitis (23.2%) and family history with inflammatory bowel diseases (9.4%) and celiac disease (7.3%) were higher than those in the general population. Compared with patients with FPIES with 1 or 2 food triggers, the risk of developing food aversion increased in cases triggered by 3 or more foods (adjusted odds ratio, 3.07; 95% CI, 1.38-6.82; P = .006). The risk of poor body weight gain increased in FPIES triggered by cow's milk (adjusted odds ratio, 3.41; 95% CI, 1.21-9.63; P = .02) and banana (adjusted odds ratio, 7.63; 95% CI, 2.10-27.80; P = .002). CONCLUSIONS: Gastrointestinal comorbidities and family history were common in patients with FPIES. Patients with FPIES with 3 or more triggers were at risk of food aversion. Patients with FPIES with cow's milk and banana as triggers were at risk of poor body weight gain.

Expansion of the CD4+ effector T-cell repertoire characterizes peanut-allergic patients with heightened clinical sensitivity.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with peanut allergy range in clinical sensitivity: some can consume grams of peanut before experiencing any symptoms, whereas others suffer systemic reactions to 10 mg or less. Current diagnostic testing only partially predicts this clinical heterogeneity. OBJECTIVE: We sought to identify characteristics of the peanut-specific CD4+ T-cell response in peanut-allergic patients that correlate with high clinical sensitivity. METHODS: We studied the T-cell receptor ß-chain (TCRß) usage and phenotypes of peanut-activated, CD154+ CD4+ memory T cells using fluorescence-activated cell sorting, TCRß sequencing, and RNA-Seq, in reactive and hyporeactive patients who were stratified by clinical sensitivity. RESULTS: TCRß analysis of the CD154+ and CD154- fractions revealed more than 6000 complementarity determining region 3 sequences and motifs that were significantly enriched in the activated cells and 17% of the sequences were shared between peanut-allergic individuals, suggesting strong convergent selection of peanut-specific clones. These clones were more numerous among the reactive patients, and this expansion was identified within effector, but not regulatory T-cell populations. The transcriptional profile of CD154+ T cells in the reactive group skewed toward a polarized TH2 effector phenotype, and expression of TH2 cytokines strongly correlated with peanut-specific IgE levels. There were, however, also non-TH2-related differences in phenotype. Furthermore, the ratio of peanut-specific clones in the effector versus regulatory T-cell compartment, which distinguished the clinical groups, was independent of specific IgE concentration. CONCLUSIONS: Expansion of the peanut-specific effector T-cell repertoire is correlated with clinical sensitivity, and this observation may be useful to inform our assessment of disease phenotype and to monitor disease longitudinally.

The nuts and bolts of omics for the clinical allergist.

OBJECTIVE: Omics, aka multi-omics, is an emerging area of research that is advancing the use of personalized medicine in clinical practice and is therefore relevant for the practicing allergist. DATA SOURCES: We performed a literature search of a selection of scientific findings in omics and allergy, including variants that may be important to allergy outcomes in the genome, transcriptome, metabolome, microbiome, epigenome, and exposome, among others. STUDY SELECTIONS: Basic science papers and review articles. RESULTS: The use of multi-omic data in clinical practice is changing how clinicians treat their patients whereby more personalized approaches are becoming standard in medical practice and has the potential to transform the treatment of allergies. CONCLUSION: Multi-omic data are relevant and will become increasingly important for the clinical allergist.

Novel eosinophilic gene expression networks associated with IgE in two distinct asthma populations.

BACKGROUND: Asthma represents a significant public health burden; however, novel biological therapies targeting immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated pathways have widened clinical treatment options for the disease. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we sought to identify gene transcripts and gene networks involved in the determination of serum IgE levels in people with asthma that can help inform the development of novel therapeutic agents. METHODS: We analysed gene expression data from a cross-sectional study of 326 Costa Rican children with asthma, aged 6 to 12 years, from the Genetics of Asthma in Costa Rica Study and 610 young adults with asthma, aged 16 to 25 years, from the Childhood Asthma Management Program trial. We utilized differential gene expression analysis and performed weighted gene coexpression network analysis on 25 060 genes, to identify gene transcripts and network modules associated with total IgE, adjusting for age and gender. We used pathway enrichment analyses to identify key biological pathways underlying significant modules. We compared findings that replicated between both populations. RESULTS: We identified 31 transcripts associated with total IgE that replicated between the two study cohorts. These results were notable for increased eosinophil-related transcripts (including IL5RA, CLC, SMPD3, CCL23 and CEBPE). Pathway enrichment identified the regulation of T cell tolerance as important in the determination of total IgE levels, supporting a key role for IDO1. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These results provide robust evidence that biologically meaningful gene expression profiles (relating to eosinophilic and regulatory T cell pathways in particular) associated with total IgE levels can be identified in individuals diagnosed with asthma during childhood. These profiles and their constituent genes may represent novel therapeutic targets.

Novel baseline predictors of adverse events during oral immunotherapy in children with peanut allergy.

BACKGROUND: Though peanut oral immunotherapy (OIT) is a promising investigational therapy, its potential is limited by substantial adverse events (AEs), which are relatively understudied. OBJECTIVE: A retrospective analysis was conducted, pooling data from 3 pediatric peanut OIT trials, comprising the largest analysis of peanut OIT safety to date. METHODS: We pooled data from 104 children with peanut allergy from 3 peanut OIT studies. We catalogued AEs from parental reports, daily symptom diaries, and dose escalations. We included events that were considered likely related to OIT and identified potential baseline predictors of higher AE rates using generalized linear regression models. RESULTS: Eighty percent of subjects experienced likely related AEs during OIT (72% during buildup and 47% during maintenance). Of these AEs, over 90% occurred while at home. Approximately 42% of subjects experienced systemic reactions, and 49% experienced gastrointestinal symptoms. Twenty percent of subjects dropped out, with half (10% of the overall group) due to persistent gastrointestinal symptoms. Baseline allergic rhinitis (AR) and peanut SPT wheal size were significant predictors of higher overall AE rates. SPT wheal size predicted increased gastrointestinal AEs, and AR predicted increased systemic reactions. Over the course of OIT, 61% of subjects received treatment for likely related AEs, 59% with antihistamines and 12% with epinephrine. CONCLUSIONS: Peanut OIT is associated with frequent AEs, with rates declining over time, and most graded mild. However, systemic reactions and intolerable gastrointestinal AEs do occur and are significantly associated with AR and peanut SPT wheal size, respectively. Further study is needed of predictive biomarkers and the overall risks and benefits of OIT.

Early oral immunotherapy in peanut-allergic preschool children is safe and highly effective.

BACKGROUND: Oral immunotherapy (OIT) is an effective experimental food allergy treatment that is limited by treatment withdrawal and the frequent reversibility of desensitization if interrupted. Newly diagnosed preschool children may have clinical and immunological characteristics more amenable to treatment. OBJECTIVE: We sought to test the safety, effectiveness, and feasibility of early OIT (E-OIT) in the treatment of peanut allergy. METHODS: We enrolled 40 children aged 9 to 36 months with suspected or known peanut allergy. Qualifying subjects reacted to peanut during an entry food challenge and were block-randomized 1:1 to receive E-OIT at goal maintenance doses of 300 or 3000 mg/d in a double-blinded fashion. The primary end point, sustained unresponsiveness at 4 weeks after stopping early intervention oral immunotherapy (4-SU), was assessed by double-blinded, placebo-controlled food challenge either upon achieving 4 prespecified criteria, or after 3 maintenance years. Peanut-specific immune responses were serially analyzed. Outcomes were compared with 154 matched standard-care controls. RESULTS: Of 40 consented subjects, 3 (7.5%) did not qualify. Overall, 29 of 37 (78%) in the intent-to-treat analysis achieved 4-SU (300-mg arm, 17 of 20 [85%]; 3000 mg, 12 of 17 [71%], P = .43) over a median of 29 months. Per-protocol, the overall proportion achieving 4-SU was 29 of 32 (91%). Peanut-specific IgE levels significantly declined in E-OIT-treated children, who were 19 times more likely to successfully consume dietary peanut than matched standard-care controls, in whom peanut-specific IgE levels significantly increased (relative risk, 19.42; 95% CI, 8.7-43.7; P < .001). Allergic side effects during E-OIT were common but all were mild to moderate. CONCLUSIONS: At both doses tested, E-OIT had an acceptable safety profile and was highly successful in rapidly suppressing allergic immune responses and achieving safe dietary reintroduction.

Respiratory Support for Very Low Birth Weight Infants Receiving Dexamethasone.

OBJECTIVE: To assess how neonatal intensive care units followed the American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines for use of dexamethasone in preterm infants by evaluating respiratory support at the time of dexamethasone administration. STUDY DESIGN: This is an observational study of infants discharged from one of 290 neonatal intensive care units from 2003 to 2010. The cohort included very low birth weight (<1500 g birth weight) infants born at ≤32 weeks gestational age. The main outcome was respiratory support at time of exposure to dexamethasone. Significant respiratory support was defined as invasive respiratory support (conventional or high-frequency ventilation) with a fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) > 0.3. RESULTS: Of 81 292 infants; 7093 (9%) received dexamethasone. At the time that dexamethasone was initiated, 4604 (65%) of infants were on significant respiratory support. CONCLUSIONS: In accordance with the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendations, a majority of infants were on significant respiratory support when receiving dexamethasone, yet a substantial number of infants still received dexamethasone on less than significant respiratory support. Further research on reducing dexamethasone use in premature infants is required to decrease the risk of neurodevelopmental impairment.

Metabolomics of IgE-Mediated Food Allergy and Oral Immunotherapy Outcomes based on Metabolomic Profiling.

Background: The immunometabolic mechanisms underlying variable responses to oral immunotherapy (OIT) in patients with IgE-mediated food allergy are unknown. Objective: To identify novel pathways associated with tolerance in food allergy, we used metabolomic profiling to find pathways important for food allergy in multi-ethnic cohorts and responses to OIT. Methods: Untargeted plasma metabolomics data were generated from the VDAART healthy infant cohort (N=384), a Costa Rican cohort of children with asthma (N=1040), and a peanut OIT trial (N=20) evaluating sustained unresponsiveness (SU, protection that lasts after therapy) versus transient desensitization (TD, protection that ends immediately afterwards). Generalized linear regression modeling and pathway enrichment analysis identified metabolites associated with food allergy and OIT outcomes. Results: Compared with unaffected children, those with food allergy were more likely to have metabolomic profiles with altered histidines and increased bile acids. Eicosanoids (e.g., arachidonic acid derivatives) (q=2.4×10 -20 ) and linoleic acid derivatives (q=3.8×10 -5 ) pathways decreased over time on OIT. Comparing SU versus TD revealed differing concentrations of bile acids (q=4.1×10 -8 ), eicosanoids (q=7.9×10 -7 ), and histidine pathways (q=0.015). In particular, the bile acid lithocholate (4.97[1.93,16.14], p=0.0027), the eicosanoid leukotriene B4 (3.21[1.38,8.38], p=0.01), and the histidine metabolite urocanic acid (22.13[3.98,194.67], p=0.0015) were higher in SU. Conclusions: We observed distinct profiles of bile acids, histidines, and eicosanoids that vary among patients with food allergy, over time on OIT and between SU and TD. Participants with SU had higher levels of metabolites such as lithocholate and urocanic acid, which have immunomodulatory roles in key T-cell subsets, suggesting potential mechanisms of tolerance in immunotherapy. Key Messages: - Compared with unaffected controls, children with food allergy demonstrated higher levels of bile acids and distinct histidine/urocanic acid profiles, suggesting a potential role of these metabolites in food allergy. - In participants receiving oral immunotherapy for food allergy, those who were able to maintain tolerance-even after stopping therapyhad lower overall levels of bile acid and histidine metabolites, with the exception of lithocholic acid and urocanic acid, two metabolites that have roles in T cell differentiation that may increase the likelihood of remission in immunotherapy. Capsule summary: This is the first study of plasma metabolomic profiles of responses to OIT in individuals with IgE-mediated food allergy. Identification of immunomodulatory metabolites in allergic tolerance may help identify mechanisms of tolerance and guide future therapeutic development.

Factors influencing age of common allergen introduction in early childhood.

Objectives: We evaluated factors influencing the timing of allergen introduction in the U.S., including updated peanut introduction guidelines. Study design: The Gastrointestinal Microbiome and Allergic Proctocolitis (GMAP) study is a prospective observational cohort in suburban Massachusetts. Infants' caregivers enrolled between 2014 and 2017, and they reported when they introduced common allergens to their child. Multivariable linear and survival regression analyses were used to examine factors influencing time of introduction of allergens. Results: By 9 months, children old enough to be potentially affected by NIAID's 2017 peanut introduction guidelines were more often introduced to peanut than children enrolled well before guidelines publication [54% vs. 42%, OR: 1.63, CI: (1.03, 2.57), P = 0.03]. At any given time, Black children were 73% [HR: 0.27, CI: (0.11, 0.69), P = 0.006] less likely to be introduced to peanut as early as White children. Asian children were, respectively, 36% [HR: 0.64, CI: (0.47, 0.86), P = 0.003] and 26% [HR: 0.74, CI: (0.55, 0.97), P = 0.03] less likely to be introduced to peanut and egg as early as White children. A first child was 27% [HR: 1.27, CI: (1.04, 1.56), P = 0.02] more likely to have been introduced to peanut earlier than a non-first child. There was no association between age of introduction and sex, gestational age, family history of food allergy, or other allergic comorbidities. Conclusion: Updated introduction guidelines, race, and birth order all influenced earlier introduction of peanut. Further studies to evaluate current practices for allergen introduction with a focus on potential disparities are needed.

Food Allergy Management Practices Utilizing Individual Patient Thresholds: A Work Group Report of the AAAAI Adverse Reactions to Foods Committee.

The paradigm for food allergy management has been strict avoidance of the food allergen. There is literature supporting a "high-threshold" phenotype, those who tolerate a small-to-modest amount of allergen but react to larger amounts. There is no consensus for best practice for these "high-threshold" individuals. We sought to understand management practices of "high-threshold" reactors using a survey that was distributed to a random sample of fellows and members of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology. There were 89 respondents from the United States and Canada (11% response rate), with 64 (72%) answering all questions. Participants worked in private (52%) and academic practice (38%) and saw a median of 30 food allergic patients monthly. Eighty-one percent of respondents reported management strategies other than strict avoidance. When threshold was known, strategies ranged from allowing ingestion up to a specified amount (57%), proactively advising ingestion to a certain amount (56%), or oral immunotherapy (47%). Participants were more likely to choose a permissive approach for a mild reaction in a high-threshold milk-allergic patient compared with a peanut-allergic patient (83% vs 71%, p=.01). Important factors that influenced the approach included severity of reaction (52%), comfort with family/patient using emergency medications (42%), and family/patient preferences (41%). These survey results suggest that food allergy management recommendations are no longer binary in nature, with clinicians solely recommending avoidance for those who are allergic and ingestion for those who may not be.