A generalizable data-driven model of atrophy heterogeneity and progression in memory clinic settings.

Memory clinic patients are a heterogeneous population representing various aetiologies of pathological ageing. It is not known whether divergent spatiotemporal progression patterns of brain atrophy, as previously described in Alzheimer's disease patients, are prevalent and clinically meaningful in this group of older adults. To uncover distinct atrophy subtypes, we applied the Subtype and Stage Inference (SuStaIn) algorithm to baseline structural MRI data from 813 participants enrolled in the DELCODE cohort (mean ± standard deviation, age = 70.67 ± 6.07 years, 52% females). Participants were cognitively unimpaired (n = 285) or fulfilled diagnostic criteria for subjective cognitive decline (n = 342), mild cognitive impairment (n = 118) or dementia of the Alzheimer's type (n = 68). Atrophy subtypes were compared in baseline demographics, fluid Alzheimer's disease biomarker levels, the Preclinical Alzheimer Cognitive Composite (PACC-5) as well as episodic memory and executive functioning. PACC-5 trajectories over up to 240 weeks were examined. To test whether baseline atrophy subtype and stage predicted clinical trajectories before manifest cognitive impairment, we analysed PACC-5 trajectories and mild cognitive impairment conversion rates of cognitively unimpaired participants and those with subjective cognitive decline. Limbic-predominant and hippocampal-sparing atrophy subtypes were identified. Limbic-predominant atrophy initially affected the medial temporal lobes, followed by further temporal regions and, finally, the remaining cortical regions. At baseline, this subtype was related to older age, more pathological Alzheimer's disease biomarker levels, APOE ε4 carriership and an amnestic cognitive impairment. Hippocampal-sparing atrophy initially occurred outside the temporal lobe, with the medial temporal lobe spared up to advanced atrophy stages. This atrophy pattern also affected individuals with positive Alzheimer's disease biomarkers and was associated with more generalized cognitive impairment. Limbic-predominant atrophy, in all participants and in only unimpaired participants, was linked to more negative longitudinal PACC-5 slopes than observed in participants without or with hippocampal-sparing atrophy and increased the risk of mild cognitive impairment conversion. SuStaIn modelling was repeated in a sample from the Swedish BioFINDER-2 cohort. Highly similar atrophy progression patterns and associated cognitive profiles were identified. Cross-cohort model generalizability, at both the subject and the group level, was excellent, indicating reliable performance in previously unseen data. The proposed model is a promising tool for capturing heterogeneity among older adults at early at-risk states for Alzheimer's disease in applied settings. The implementation of atrophy subtype- and stage-specific end points might increase the statistical power of pharmacological trials targeting early Alzheimer's disease.

Scale for the assessment and rating of ataxia: Age-dependent performance of healthy adults.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The Scale for Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA) is a widely used clinical scale. The objective was to study the age dependence of SARA in healthy adults and to define age-specific cut-off values to differentiate healthy from ataxic individuals. METHODS: Data from 390 healthy individuals and 119 spinocerebellar ataxia patients were analyzed. SARA scores were mapped on functional SARA (fSARA). Age-adjusted cut-off values were determined by receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. RESULTS: The cut-off value was 3 for SARA and 1.5 for fSARA. Older patients had higher SARA cut-off values (4.5 for 60-69 years and 6.5 for 70-79 years). Age-adjusted cut-off values for fSARA are 1 for 18-29, 30-39 and 50-59 years, 2 for 40-49 and 60-69 years and 3 for 70-79 years. Sensitivity and specificity were higher for SARA than for fSARA. CONCLUSION: In this study, age-dependent cut-off values were defined for SARA and fSARA. The results may be relevant for the design of future preventive trials in spinocerebellar ataxias that use conversion to ataxia as an outcome.

Digital Gait Biomarkers Allow to Capture 1-Year Longitudinal Change in Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3.

Measures of step variability and body sway during gait have shown to correlate with clinical ataxia severity in several cross-sectional studies. However, to serve as a valid progression biomarker, these gait measures have to prove their sensitivity to robustly capture longitudinal change, ideally within short time frames (eg, 1 year). We present the first multicenter longitudinal gait analysis study in spinocerebellar ataxias. We performed a combined cross-sectional (n = 28) and longitudinal (1-year interval, n = 17) analysis in Spinocerebellar Ataxia type 3 subjects (including seven preataxic mutation carriers). Longitudinal analysis showed significant change in gait measures between baseline and 1-year follow-up, with high effect sizes (stride length variability: P = 0.01, effect size rprb  = 0.66; lateral sway: P = 0.007, rprb  = 0.73). Sample size estimation for lateral sway indicates a required cohort size of n = 43 for detecting a 50% reduction of natural progression, compared with n = 240 for the clinical ataxia score Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia (SARA). These measures thus present promising motor biomarkers for upcoming interventional studies. © 2022 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Plasma extracellular vesicle tau and TDP-43 as diagnostic biomarkers in FTD and ALS.

Minimally invasive biomarkers are urgently needed to detect molecular pathology in frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Here, we show that plasma extracellular vesicles (EVs) contain quantifiable amounts of TDP-43 and full-length tau, which allow the quantification of 3-repeat (3R) and 4-repeat (4R) tau isoforms. Plasma EV TDP-43 levels and EV 3R/4R tau ratios were determined in a cohort of 704 patients, including 37 genetically and 31 neuropathologically proven cases. Diagnostic groups comprised patients with TDP-43 proteinopathy ALS, 4R tauopathy progressive supranuclear palsy, behavior variant FTD (bvFTD) as a group with either tau or TDP-43 pathology, and healthy controls. EV tau ratios were low in progressive supranuclear palsy and high in bvFTD with tau pathology. EV TDP-43 levels were high in ALS and in bvFTD with TDP-43 pathology. Both markers discriminated between the diagnostic groups with area under the curve values >0.9, and between TDP-43 and tau pathology in bvFTD. Both markers strongly correlated with neurodegeneration, and clinical and neuropsychological markers of disease severity. Findings were replicated in an independent validation cohort of 292 patients including 34 genetically confirmed cases. Taken together, the combination of EV TDP-43 levels and EV 3R/4R tau ratios may aid the molecular diagnosis of FTD, FTD spectrum disorders and ALS, providing a potential biomarker to monitor disease progression and target engagement in clinical trials.

Relevance of Minor Neuropsychological Deficits in Patients With Subjective Cognitive Decline.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: To determine the relevance of minor neuropsychological deficits (MNPD) in patients with subjective cognitive decline (SCD) with regard to CSF levels of Alzheimer disease (AD) biomarkers, cognitive decline, and clinical progression to mild cognitive impairment (MCI). METHODS: This study included patients with clinical SCD and SCD-free, healthy control (HC) participants with available baseline CSF and/or longitudinal cognitive data from the observational DZNE Longitudinal Cognitive Impairment and Dementia study. We defined MNPD as a performance of at least 0.5SD below the mean on a demographically adjusted total score derived from the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease neuropsychological assessment battery. We compared SCD patients with MNPD and those without MNPD with regard to CSF amyloid-ß (Aß)42/Aß40, phosphorylated tau (p-tau181), total tau and Aß42/p-tau181 levels, longitudinal cognitive composite trajectories, and risk of clinical progression to incident MCI (follow-up M ± SD: 40.6 ± 23.7 months). In addition, we explored group differences between SCD and HC in those without MNPD. RESULTS: In our sample (N = 672, mean age: 70.7 ± 5.9 years, 50% female), SCD patients with MNPD (n = 55, 12.5% of SCD group) showed significantly more abnormal CSF biomarker levels, increased cognitive decline, and a higher risk of progression to incident MCI (HR: 4.07, 95% CI 2.46-6.74) compared with SCD patients without MNPD (n = 384). MNPD had a positive predictive value of 57.0% (95% CI 38.5-75.4) and a negative predictive value of 86.0% (95% CI 81.9-90.1) for the progression of SCD to MCI within 3 years. SCD patients without MNPD showed increased cognitive decline and a higher risk of incident MCI compared with HC participants without MNPD (n = 215; HR: 4.09, 95% CI 2.07-8.09), while AD biomarker levels did not differ significantly between these groups. DISCUSSION: Our results suggest that MNPD are a risk factor for AD-related clinical progression in cognitively normal patients seeking medical counseling because of SCD. As such, the assessment of MNPD could be useful for individual clinical prediction and for AD risk stratification in clinical trials. However, SCD remains a risk factor for future cognitive decline even in the absence of MNPD.

Gene expression profiling in ataxin-3 expressing cell lines reveals distinct effects of normal and mutant ataxin-3.

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3) is a late-onset neurodegenerative disorder caused by the expansion of a polyglutamine tract within the gene product, ataxin-3. We have previously shown that mutant ataxin-3 causes upregulation of inflammatory genes in transgenic SCA3 cell lines and human SCA3 pontine neurons. We report here a complex pattern of transcriptional changes by microarray gene expression profiling and Northern blot analysis in a SCA3 cell model. Twenty-three differentially expressed genes involved in inflammatory reactions, nuclear transcription, and cell surface-associated processes were identified. The identified corresponding proteins were analyzed by immunohistochemistry in human disease and control brain tissue to evaluate their implication in SCA3 pathogenesis. In addition to several inflammatory mediators upregulated in mutant ataxin-3 expressing cell lines and pontine neurons of SCA3 patients, we identified a profound repression of genes encoding cell surface-associated proteins in cells overexpressing normal ataxin-3. Correspondingly, these genes were upregulated in mutant ataxin-3 expressing cell lines and in pontine neurons of SCA3 patients. These findings identify for the first time target genes transcriptionally regulated by normal ataxin-3 and support the hypothesis that both loss of normal ataxin-3 and gain of function through protein-protein interacting properties of mutant ataxin-3 contribute to SCA3 pathogenesis.

Transcriptional changes in multiple system atrophy and Parkinson's disease putamen.

Multiple system atrophy (MSA) and sporadic, non-mendelian Parkinson's disease (PD) are progressive neurodegenerative disorders with overlapping clinical symptoms and pathology. The etiology of both disorders is unknown, and complex combinations of multiple susceptibility genes and environmental factors are thought to be involved. Both disorders are characterized by ubiquitous alpha-synuclein aggregates in distinct regions and cell types of the central nervous system. In PD, alpha-synuclein-positive aggregates appear to be largely neuronal while in MSA oligodendroglial inclusions prevail. In PD patients, the alpha-synuclein pathology is thought to evolve in a rather regular pattern, starting in the brainstem and olfactory bulb and extending gradually onto the substantia nigra and ultimately the cerebral cortex while the cerebellum is largely spared. MSA pathology has not been graded in a similar way yet; neuropathological analyses revealed neurodegeneration and gliosis primarily in the brainstem, midbrain and basal ganglia and the cerebellum, while the cortex is largely spared. To identify disease-specific transcriptional patterns in MSA, we chose CNS regions differentially affected in MSA and PD for comparative gene expression profiling: putamen, cerebellum and occipital cortex. Four genes were regulated in both MSA and PD putamen and twelve in MSA and PD cerebellum. Regulated transcripts were validated using real-time quantitative RT-PCR, and immunohistochemistry was performed for the most significantly downregulated transcripts in MSA and PD putamen, GPR86 and RGS14, associated with G protein signaling and transcriptional regulation.