The contribution of tumor necrosis factor to multiple sclerosis: a possible role in progression independent of relapse?

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a pleiotropic cytokine regulating many physiological and pathological immune-mediated processes. Specifically, it has been recognized as an essential pro-inflammatory cytokine implicated in multiple sclerosis (MS) pathogenesis and progression. MS is a chronic immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system, characterized by multifocal acute and chronic inflammatory demyelination in white and grey matter, along with neuroaxonal loss. A recent concept in the field of MS research is disability resulting from Progression Independent of Relapse Activity (PIRA). PIRA recognizes that disability accumulation since the early phase of the disease can occur independently of relapse activity overcoming the traditional dualistic view of MS as either a relapsing-inflammatory or a progressive-neurodegenerative disease. Several studies have demonstrated an upregulation in TNF expression in both acute and chronic active MS brain lesions. Additionally, elevated TNF levels have been observed in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid of MS patients. TNF appears to play a significant role in maintaining chronic intrathecal inflammation, promoting axonal damage neurodegeneration, and consequently contributing to disease progression and disability accumulation. In summary, this review highlights the current understanding of TNF and its receptors in MS progression, specifically focusing on the relatively unexplored PIRA condition. Further research in this area holds promise for potential therapeutic interventions targeting TNF to mitigate disability in MS patients.

The time to include cognition in the multiple sclerosis concept of progression independent from relapse activity is now.

Progression independent of relapse activity (PIRA) has been recently proposed in multiple sclerosis (MS) as a model identifying a continuous silent progression of disability without the manifestation of new clinical and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) events that contribute to MS worsening. Despite evidence suggesting that clinical MS manifestations often affect cognitive functioning and the importance of neuropsychological monitoring over time, attention to silent cognitive progression is lacking, and the PIRA concept does not include a measure of cognitive function. In this personal viewpoint, we highlight the need to include cognition in the PIRA model to have a more comprehensive understanding of clinical progression in patients with MS.

Cognitive phenotypes predict response to restorative cognitive rehabilitation in multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive phenotyping may be useful for predicting rehabilitation response in multiple sclerosis. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between cognitive phenotype(s) and response to restorative cognitive rehabilitation (RRCR). METHODS: In a post hoc retrospective analysis of the RRCR study including 51 multiple sclerosis patients, we evaluated both impairment within specific cognitive domains as well as overall global impairment severity to investigate their relationship to improvement following rehabilitation. RESULTS: Greater improvement in executive function was predicted by impairment within this domain as well as by having fewer impaired cognitive domains overall. Similar results were observed for visuospatial memory. CONCLUSIONS: Patients most likely to benefit from restorative cognitive rehabilitation may exhibit impairment within the domain of interest yet lower cognitive burden overall.

Cortical lesions at diagnosis predict long-term cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis: A 20-year study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Although cognitive impairment (CI) is frequent in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients, few studies (and with conflicting results) have evaluated early predictors of CI in the long term. We aimed at determining associations between early clinical/neuroradiological variables with reference to CI after 20 years of MS. METHODS: We investigated in 170 MS patients the relationship between clinical/magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data at diagnosis and cognitive status almost 20 years after MS onset. Among others, number and volume of both white matter lesions (WMLs) and cortical lesions (CLs) were evaluated at diagnosis and after 2 years. All MS patients were followed over time and underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment at the end of study. Advanced statistical methods (unsupervised cluster analysis and random forest model) were conducted. RESULTS: CI patients showed higher focal cortical pathology at diagnosis compared to cognitively normal subjects (p < 0.001). Volumes of both WMLs and CLs emerged as the MRI metrics most associated with long-term CI. Moreover, number of CLs (especially ≥3) was also strongly associated with long-term CI (≥3 CLs: odds ratio [OR] = 3.7, 95% confidence interval = 1.8-7.5, p < 0.001), more than number of WMLs; the optimal cutoff of three CLs (area under the curve = 0.67, specificity = 75%, sensitivity = 55%) was estimated according to the risk of developing CI. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight the impact of considering both white and gray matter focal damage from early MS stages. Given the low predictive value of WML number and the poor clinical applicability of lesion volume estimation in the daily clinical context, the evaluation of number of CLs could represent a reliable prognostic marker of CI.

Unraveling the MRI-Based Microstructural Signatures Behind Primary Progressive and Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis Phenotypes.

BACKGROUND: The mechanisms driving primary progressive and relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (PPMS/RRMS) phenotypes are unknown. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies support the involvement of gray matter (GM) in the degeneration, highlighting its damage as an early feature of both phenotypes. However, the role of GM microstructure is unclear, calling for new methods for its decryption. PURPOSE: To investigate the morphometric and microstructural GM differences between PPMS and RRMS to characterize GM tissue degeneration using MRI. STUDY TYPE: Prospective cross-sectional study. SUBJECTS: Forty-five PPMS (26 females) and 45 RRMS (32 females) patients. FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE: 3T scanner. Three-dimensional (3D) fast field echo T1-weighted (T1-w), 3D turbo spin echo (TSE) T2-w, 3D TSE fluid-attenuated inversion recovery, and spin echo-echo planar imaging diffusion MRI (dMRI). ASSESSMENT: T1-w and dMRI data were employed for providing information about morphometric and microstructural features, respectively. For dMRI, both diffusion tensor imaging and 3D simple harmonics oscillator based reconstruction and estimation models were used for feature extraction from a predefined set of regions. A support vector machine (SVM) was used to perform patients' classification relying on all these measures. STATISTICAL TESTS: Differences between MS phenotypes were investigated using the analysis of covariance and statistical tests (P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant). RESULTS: All the dMRI indices showed significant microstructural alterations between the considered MS phenotypes, for example, the mode and the median of the return to the plane probability in the hippocampus. Conversely, thalamic volume was the only morphometric feature significantly different between the two MS groups. Ten of the 12 features retained by the selection process as discriminative across the two MS groups regarded the hippocampus. The SVM classifier using these selected features reached an accuracy of 70% and a precision of 69%. DATA CONCLUSION: We provided evidence in support of the ability of dMRI to discriminate between PPMS and RRMS, as well as highlight the central role of the hippocampus. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 2 TECHNICAL EFFICACY STAGE: 3.

Cerebrospinal fluid inflammatory profile of cognitive impairment in newly diagnosed multiple sclerosis patients.

BACKGROUND: The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) molecular milieu is a marker of diffuse intrathecal inflammation in the meninges that, in turn, targets the grey matter (GM) in multiple sclerosis (MS). Cognitive impairment (CI) is associated with brain damage in MS and is often present early in people with MS (pwMS). OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether a specific CSF inflammatory profile is associated with different degrees of CI in newly diagnosed pwMS. METHODS: Sixty-nine pwMS and 43 healthy controls (HCs) underwent neuropsychological testing. The presence and levels of 57 inflammatory mediators in the CSF were assessed. RESULTS: Apparently cognitively normal (ACN) pwMS had impaired executive functioning compared to HCs but performed better than pwMS with mild and severe CI (mCI and sCI) in all tests. CSF mediators involving innate immunity and immune activation and recruitment, differentiate ACN from pwMS with mCI, while CSF mediators related to B- and T-cell immunity and chemotaxis differentiate both ACN and mCI from those with sCI. CXCL13 was the only molecule that differentiated sCI from mCI pwMS. CONCLUSION: Specific CSF molecular patterns, reflecting the involvement of both innate and adaptive immune responses, are associated with the severity of CI in newly diagnosed pwMS.

The CSF Profile Linked to Cortical Damage Predicts Multiple Sclerosis Activity.

OBJECTIVE: Intrathecal inflammation correlates with the grey matter damage since the early stages of multiple sclerosis (MS), but whether the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) profile can help to identify patients at risk of disease activity is still unclear. METHODS: We evaluated the association between CSF levels of 18 cytokines, previously found to be associated to grey matter damage, and the disease activity, among 99 patients with relapsing-remitting MS, who underwent blinded clinical and 3 T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) evaluations for 4 years. Groups with evidence of disease activity (EDA) or no evidence of disease activity (NEDA; occurrence of relapses, new white matter lesions, and Expanded Disability Status Scale [EDSS] change) were identified. Cortical lesions and the annualized cortical thinning were also evaluated. RESULTS: Forty-one patients experienced EDA and, compared to the NEDA group, had at diagnosis higher CSF levels of CXCL13, CXCL12, IFNγ, TNF, sCD163, LIGHT, and APRIL (p < 0.001). In the multivariate analysis, CXCL13 (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.35; p = 0.0002), LIGHT (HR = 1.22; p = 0.005) and APRIL (HR = 1.78; p = 0.0001) were the CSF molecules more strongly associated with the risk of EDA. The model, including CSF variables, predicted more accurately the occurrence of disease activity than the model with only clinical/MRI parameters (C-index at 4 years = 71% vs 44%). Finally, higher CSF levels of CXCL13 (ß = 4.7*10-4 ; p < 0.001), TNF (ß = 3.1*10-3 ; p = 0.004), LIGHT (ß = 2.6*10-4 ; p = 0.003), sCD163 (ß = 4.3*10-3 ; p = 0.009), and TWEAK (ß = 3.4*10-3 ; p = 0.024) were associated with more severe cortical thinning. INTERPRETATION: A specific CSF profile, mainly characterized by elevated levels of B-cell related cytokines, distinguishes patients at high risk of disease activity and severe cortical damage. The CSF analysis may allow stratifications of patients at diagnosis for optimizing therapeutic approaches. ANN NEUROL 2020;88:562-573.

The neural substrates of social cognition deficits in newly diagnosed multiple sclerosis patients.

OBJECTIVE: Cognitive and affective symptoms in multiple sclerosis (MS) can be independently impaired and have different pathways of progression. Cognitive alterations have been described since the earliest MS stages; by contrast, the social cognition (SC) domain has never been investigated in the first year from MS diagnosis. We aimed to evaluate SC and unravel its neural bases in newly diagnosed MS patients. METHODS: Seventy MS patients underwent at diagnosis a 3 T-MRI and a neuropsychological/SC assessment (median time between diagnosis and MRI/cognitive evaluation = 0 months). We tested two matched reference samples: 31 relapsing-remitting MS patients with longer course (mean ± SD disease duration = 7.0 ± 4.5 years) and 38 healthy controls (HCs). Cortical thicknesses (CTh) and volumes of brain regions were calculated. RESULTS: Newly diagnosed MS patients performed significantly lower than HCs in facial emotion recognition (global: p < 0.001; happiness: p = 0.041, anger: p = 0.007; fear: p < 0.001; disgust: p = 0.004) and theory of mind (p = 0.005), while no difference was found between newly diagnosed and longer MS patients. Compared to lower performers, higher performers in facial emotion recognition showed greater volume of amygdala (p = 0.032) and caudate (p = 0.036); higher performers in theory of mind showed greater CTh in lingual gyrus (p = 0.006), cuneus (p = 0.024), isthmus cingulate (p = 0.038), greater volumes of putamen (p = 0.016), pallidum (p = 0.029), and amygdala (p = 0.032); patients with higher empathy showed lower cuneus CTh (p = 0.042) and putamen volume (p = 0.007). INTERPRETATIONS: SC deficits are present in MS patients since the time of diagnosis and remain persistent along the disease course. Specific basal, limbic, and occipital areas play a significant role in the pathogenesis of these alterations.

Ocrelizumab reduces cortical and deep grey matter loss compared to the S1P-receptor modulator in multiple sclerosis.

INTRODUCTION: Ocrelizumab (OCR) and Fingolimod (FGL) are two high-efficacy treatments in multiple sclerosis which, besides their strong anti-inflammatory activity, may limit neurodegeneration. AIM: To compare the effect of OCR and FGL on clinical and MRI endpoints. METHODS: 95 relapsing-remitting patients (57 OCR, 38 FGL) clinically followed for 36 months underwent a 3-Tesla MRI at baseline and after 24 months. The annualized relapse rate, EDSS, new cortical/white matter lesions and regional cortical and deep grey matter volume loss were evaluated. RESULTS: OCR reduced the relapse rate from 0.48 to 0.04, FGL from 0.32 to 0.05 (both p < 0.001). Compared to FGL, OCR-group experienced fewer new white matter lesions (12% vs 32%, p = 0.005), no differences in new cortical lesions, lower deep grey matter volume loss (- 0.12% vs - 0.66%; p = 0.002, Cohen's d = 0.54), lower global cortical thickness change (- 0.45% vs - 0.70%; p = 0.036; d = 0.42) and reduced cortical thinning/volume loss in several regions of interests, including those of parietal gyrus (d-range = 0.65-0.71), frontal gyrus (d-range = 0.47-0.60), cingulate (d-range = 0.41-0.72), insula (d = 0.36), cerebellum (cortex d = 0.72, white matter d = 0.44), putamen (d = 0.35) and thalamus (d = 0.31). The effect on some regional thickness changes was confirmed in patients without focal lesions. CONCLUSIONS: When compared with FGL, patients receiving OCR showed greater suppression of focal MRI lesions accumulation and lower cortical and deep grey matter volume loss.

Early regional cerebral grey matter damage predicts long-term cognitive impairment phenotypes in multiple sclerosis: a 20-year study.

Despite grey matter atrophy in cortical and subcortical regions has been related to cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis, only a few studies evaluated its predictive value for alterations in the long-term. We aimed to determine early predictors of cognitive status after 20 years of multiple sclerosis. In this longitudinal retrospective study, participants underwent a 1.5 T MRI scanning at diagnosis (T0) and after two years (T2), which included the evaluation of regional grey matter volume loss patterns. All individuals with multiple sclerosis underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment at the end of the study and were classified considering their global and specific cognitive domains status (memory, attention/information processing speed, executive functioning). Clinical and MRI characteristics were assessed as predictors of long-term cognitive impairment. Analysis of covariance, t-test, unadjusted and adjusted (for age, sex, disease duration, volume of white matter lesions, volume of cortical lesions) logistic regression were conducted. One hundred seventy-five people with multiple sclerosis (118 females; mean ± SD age at the end of study = 47.7 ± 9.4 years) clinically followed for 20 years from onset (mean ± SD = 19.9 ± 5.1) were evaluated. At the end of the study, 81 (47%) were classified as cognitively impaired: 38 as mildly impaired (22%), and 43 as severely impaired (25%). In particular, 46 were impaired in memory (27%), 66 were impaired in attention/information processing speed (38%), and 71 were impaired in executive functioning (41%). Regression models identified precuneus (adjusted odds ratio = 3.37; P < 0.001), insula (adjusted odds ratio = 2.33; P = 0.036), parahippocampal gyrus (adjusted odds ratio = 2.07; P < 0.001) and cingulate (adjusted odds ratio = 1.81; P = 0.009) as the most associated regions with global cognitive impairment and domains-specific cognitive alterations after a mean of 20 years of multiple sclerosis, after adjusting for demographic and clinical variables as well as for focal white matter and grey matter damage. Early grey matter volume loss of specific cortical and deep grey matter regions predicts global and domain cognitive alterations after 20 years from multiple sclerosis diagnosis.

CSF levels of Chitinase3like1 correlate with early response to cladribine in multiple sclerosis.

Background: Cladribine has been introduced as a high-efficacy drug for treating relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). Initial cohort studies showed early disease activity in the first year after drug initiation. Biomarkers that can predict early disease activity are needed. Aim: To estimate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) markers of clinical and radiological responses after initiation of cladribine. Methods: Forty-two RRMS patients (30F/12M) treated with cladribine were included in a longitudinal prospective study. All patients underwent a CSF examination at treatment initiation, clinical follow-up including Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) assessment, and a 3T MRI scan after 6,12 and 24 months, including the evaluation of white matter (WM) and cortical lesions (CLs). CSF levels of 67 inflammatory markers were assessed with immune-assay multiplex techniques. The 'no evidence of disease activity' (NEDA-3) status was assessed after two years and defined by no relapses, no disability worsening measured by EDSS and no MRI activity, including CLs. Results: Three patients were lost at follow-up. At the end of follow-up, 19 (48%) patients remained free from disease activity. IFNgamma, Chitinase3like1, IL32, Osteopontin, IL12(p40), IL34, IL28A, sTNFR2, IL20 and CCL2 showed the best association with disease activity. When added in a multivariate regression model including age, sex, and baseline EDSS, Chitinase 3 like1 (p = 0.049) significantly increased in those patients with disease activity. Finally, ROC analysis with Chitinase3like1 added to a model with EDSS, sex, age previous relapses, WM lesion number, CLs, number of Gad enhancing lesions and spinal cord lesions provided an AUC of 0.76 (95%CI 0.60-0.91). Conclusions: CSF Chitinase 3 like1 might provide prognostic information for predicting disease activity in the first years after initiation of cladribine. The drug's effect on chronic macrophage and microglia activation deserves further evaluation.

CSF Parvalbumin Levels at Multiple Sclerosis Diagnosis Predict Future Worse Cognition, Physical Disability, Fatigue, and Gray Matter Damage.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Cognitive impairment (CI) in multiple sclerosis (MS) is frequent and determined by a complex interplay between inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes. We aimed to investigate whether CSF parvalbumin (PVALB), measured at the time of diagnosis, may have a prognostic role in patients with MS. METHODS: In this cohort study, CSF analysis of PVALB and Nf-L levels was performed on all patients at diagnosis (T0) and combined with physical, cognitive, and MRI assessment after an average of 4 years of follow-up (T4) from diagnosis. Cognitive performance was evaluated with a comprehensive neuropsychologic battery: both global (cognitively normal, CN, mildly CI, mCI, and severely CI, sCI) and domain cognitive status (normal/impaired in memory, attention/information processing speed, and executive functions) were considered. Cortical thickness and gray matter volume data were acquired using 3T MRI scanner. RESULTS: A total of 72 patients with MS were included. At diagnosis, PVALB levels were higher in those patients who showed a worsening physical disability after 4 years of follow-up (p = 0.011). CSF PVALB levels were higher in sCI patients than in CN (p = 0.033). Moreover, higher PVALB levels significantly correlated with worse global cognitive (p = 0.024) and memory functioning (p = 0.044). A preliminary clinical threshold for PVALB levels at diagnosis was proposed (2.57 ng/mL), which maximizes the risk of showing CI (in particular, sCI) at follow-up, with a sensitivity of 91% (specificity 30%). No significant results were found for these associations with Nf-L. In addition, patients with higher levels of PVALB at diagnosis showed higher cognitive (p = 0.024) and global fatigue (p = 0.043) at follow-up. Finally, higher PVALB levels also correlated significantly with more pronounced CTh/volume at T4 in the inferior frontal gyrus (p = 0.044), postcentral gyrus (p = 0.025), frontal pole (p = 0.042), transverse temporal gyrus (p = 0.008), and cerebellar cortex (p = 0.041) and higher atrophy (change T0-T4) in the right thalamus (p = 0.038), pericalcarine cortex (p = 0.009), lingual gyrus (p = 0.045), and medial frontal gyrus (p = 0.028). DISCUSSION: The significant association found between parvalbumin levels in the CSF at diagnosis and cognitive, clinical, and neuroradiologic worsening after 4 years of follow-up support the idea that parvalbumin, in addition to Nf-L, might represent a new potential prognostic biomarker, reflecting MS neurodegenerative processes occurring since early disease stages.

Association of Levels of CSF Osteopontin With Cortical Atrophy and Disability in Early Multiple Sclerosis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: To evaluate CSF inflammatory markers with accumulation of cortical damage as well as disease activity in patients with early relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). METHODS: CSF levels of osteopontin (OPN) and 66 inflammatory markers were assessed using an immune-assay multiplex technique in 107 patients with RRMS (82 F/25 M, mean age 35.7 ± 11.8 years). All patients underwent regular clinical assessment and yearly 3T MRI scans for 2 years while 39 patients had a 4-year follow-up. White matter lesion number and volume, cortical lesions (CLs) and volume, and global cortical thickness (CTh) were evaluated together with the 'no evidence of disease activity' (NEDA-3) status, defined by no relapses, no disability worsening, and no MRI activity, including CLs. RESULTS: The random forest algorithm selected OPN, CXCL13, TWEAK, TNF, IL19, sCD30, sTNFR1, IL35, IL16, and sCD163 as significantly associated with changes in global CTh. OPN and CXCL13 were most related to accumulation of atrophy after 2 and 4 years. In a multivariate linear regression model on CSF markers, OPN (p < 0.001), CXCL13 (p = 0.001), and sTNFR1 (p = 0.024) were increased in those patients with accumulating atrophy (adjusted R-squared 0.615). The 10 markers were added in a model that included all clinical, demographic, and MRI variables: OPN (p = 0.002) and IL19 (p = 0.022) levels were confirmed to be significantly increased in patients developing more CTh change over the follow-up (adjusted R-squared 0.619). CXCL13 and OPN also revealed the best association with NEDA-3 after 2 years, with OPN significantly linked to disability accumulation (OR 2.468 [1.46-5.034], p = 0.004) at the multivariate logistic regression model. DISCUSSION: These data confirm and expand our knowledge on the prognostic role of the CSF inflammatory profile in predicting changes in cortical pathology and disease activity in early MS. The data emphasize a crucial role of OPN.

Making Visible the Invisible: Automatically Measured Global and Regional Brain Volume Is Associated with Cognitive Impairment and Fatigue in Multiple Sclerosis.

In multiple sclerosis (MS), the transition from relapsing-remitting to the secondary-progressive phase is characterized by a progression independent of relapse activity (PIRA), resulting in physical disability accumulation and invisible symptoms, i.e., fatigue and cognitive impairment (CI). These symptoms are related to neurodegenerative processes and have been correlated with MRI measures of brain atrophy only at a group level; however, the application in clinical practice of atrophy-based measurements for single-patient evaluation is yet to be fully investigated. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the association between brain atrophy, measured with easy-to-use automatic software, and the "invisible" MS symptoms of cognition and fatigue. A total of 69 MS patients were included in the study; cognitive impairment and fatigue (FSS) (in addition to neurological disability, EDSS) were assessed and correlated with brain volumes calculated using the automated software QyScore® which is validated for single-patient use in the clinical setting. Results showed that the cognitive status was accurately reflected by measures of atrophy, with a sensitivity of up to 90%. CI patients showed a lower volume compared to cognitively normal patients in the whole brain (p = 0.017), gray matter (p = 0.042), insula (p = 0.035), cerebellum (p = 0.008), and limbic lobe (p = 0.049). FSS was associated with temporal lobe (r = -0.37, p = 0.013) and insular (r = -0.36, p = 0.019) volumes. The volumes of the same regions were also associated with EDSS. The global/regional atrophy results, assessed with automatic and easy-to-use software, correlated with cognitive and fatigue symptoms, thus supporting the clinical application in routine patient management.

Immune Response after COVID-19 mRNA Vaccination in Multiple Sclerosis Patients Treated with DMTs.

The impact of disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) on the immune response to coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) vaccines in persons with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) needs further elucidation. We investigated BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine effects concerning antibody seroconversion, inflammatory mediators' level and immunophenotype assessment in pwMS treated with cladribine (c-pwMS, n = 29), fingolimod (f-pwMS, n = 15) and ocrelizumab (o-pwMS, n = 54). Anti-spike immunoglobulin (Ig)-G detection was performed by an enzyme immunoassay; molecular mediators (GrB, IFN-γ and TNF-α) were quantified using the ELLA platform, and immunophenotype was assessed by flow cytometry. ANCOVA, Student's t-test and Pearson correlation analyses were applied. Only one o-pwMS showed a mild COVID-19 infection despite most o-pwMS lacking seroconversion and showing lower anti-spike IgG titers than c-pwMS and f-pwMS. No significant difference in cytokine production and lymphocyte count was observed in c-pwMS and f-pwMS. In contrast, in o-pwMS, a significant increase in GrB levels was detected after vaccination. Considering non-seroconverted o-pwMS, a significant increase in GrB serum levels and CD4+ T lymphocyte count was found after vaccination, and a negative correlation was observed between anti-spike IgG production and CD4+ T cells count. Differences in inflammatory mediators' production after BNT162b2 vaccination in o-pwMS, specifically in those lacking anti-spike IgG, suggest a protective cellular immune response.

"What Is Hidden behind the Mask?" Facial Emotion Recognition at the Time of COVID-19 Pandemic in Cognitively Normal Multiple Sclerosis Patients.

Social cognition deficits have been described in people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS), even in absence of a global cognitive impairment, affecting predominantly the ability to adequately process emotions from human faces. The COVID-19 pandemic has forced people to wear face masks that might interfere with facial emotion recognition. Therefore, in the present study, we aimed at investigating the ability of emotion recognition in PwMS from faces wearing masks. We enrolled a total of 42 cognitively normal relapsing-remitting PwMS and a matched group of 20 healthy controls (HCs). Participants underwent a facial emotion recognition task in which they had to recognize from faces wearing or not surgical masks which of the six basic emotions (happiness, anger, fear, sadness, surprise, disgust) was presented. Results showed that face masks negatively affected emotion recognition in all participants (p < 0.001); in particular, PwMS showed a global worse accuracy than HCs (p = 0.005), mainly driven by the "no masked" (p = 0.021) than the "masked" (p = 0.064) condition. Considering individual emotions, PwMS showed a selective impairment in the recognition of fear, compared with HCs, in both the conditions investigated ("masked": p = 0.023; "no masked": p = 0.016). Face masks affected negatively also response times (p < 0.001); in particular, PwMS were globally hastier than HCs (p = 0.024), especially in the "masked" condition (p = 0.013). Furthermore, a detailed characterization of the performance of PwMS and HCs in terms of accuracy and response speed was proposed. Results from the present study showed the effect of face masks on the ability to process facial emotions in PwMS, compared with HCs. Healthcare professionals working with PwMS at the time of the COVID-19 outbreak should take into consideration this effect in their clinical practice. Implications in the everyday life of PwMS are also discussed.

Social Cognition in Multiple Sclerosis: A 3-Year Follow-Up MRI and Behavioral Study.

Social cognition (SC) has become a topic of widespread interest in the last decade. SC deficits were described in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients, in association with amygdala lesions, even in those without formal cognitive impairment. In this 3-year follow-up study, we aimed at longitudinally investigating the evolution of SC deficits and amygdala damage in a group of cognitive-normal MS patients, and the association between SC and psychological well-being. After 3 years (T3) from the baseline examination (T0), 26 relapsing-remitting MS patients (RRMS) were retested with a neuropsychological battery and SC tasks (theory of mind, facial emotion recognition, empathy). A SC composite score (SCcomp) was calculated for each patient. Emotional state, fatigue, and quality of life (QoL) were also evaluated. RRMS patients at T3 underwent a 3T-MRI as performed at T0, from which were calculated both volume and cortical lesion volume (CLV) of the amygdalae. Compared to T0, at T3 all RRMS patients were still cognitive-normal and remained stable in their global SC impaired performance. At T0, SCcomp correlated with amygdala CLV (p = 0.002) while, at T3, was more associated with amygdala volume (p = 0.035) rather than amygdala CLV (p = 0.043). SCcomp change T3-T0 correlated with global emotional state (p = 0.043), depression (p = 0.046), anxiety (p = 0.034), fatigue (p = 0.025), and QoL-social functioning (p = 0.033). We showed the longitudinal stability of SC deficits in cognitive-normal RRMS patients, mirroring the amygdala structural damage and the psychological well-being. These results highlight that SC exerts a key role in MS.

A Videogame-Based Approach to Measuring Information Processing Speed in Multiple Sclerosis Patients.

Objective: Slowing information processing speed (IPS) is a biomarker of neuronal damage in patients with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). A focus on IPS might be the ideal solution in the perspective of promptly detecting cognitive changes over time. We developed a tablet-based home-made videogame to test the sensitivity of this device in measuring subclinical IPS in pwMS. Materials and Methods: Forty-three pwMS without cognitive impairment and 20 healthy controls (HCs) were administered the videogame task with a tablet. Response times (RTs) and accuracy were recorded. Results: PwMS (mean RTs = 505.5 ± 73.9 ms) were significantly slower than HCs (mean RTs = 462.3 ± 40.3 ms, P = 0.014) on the videogame task. A moderate but significant correlation (r = -0.35, P = 0.03) between mean RTs and the Symbol Digit Modalities Test was observed. Conclusion: Our videogame showed good sensitivity in measuring IPS in apparently cognitive normal pwMS. Computerized testing might be useful in screening initial cognitive dysfunction that should be monitored as a marker of underlying disease progression. IRB approval Number is 2332CESC.

CSF parvalbumin levels reflect interneuron loss linked with cortical pathology in multiple sclerosis.

INTRODUCTION AND METHODS: In order to verify whether parvalbumin (PVALB), a protein specifically expressed by GABAergic interneurons, could be a MS-specific marker of grey matter neurodegeneration, we performed neuropathology/molecular analysis of PVALB expression in motor cortex of 40 post-mortem progressive MS cases, with/without meningeal inflammation, and 10 control cases, in combination with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) assessment. Analysis of CSF PVALB and neurofilaments (Nf-L) levels combined with physical/cognitive/3TMRI assessment was performed in 110 naïve MS patients and in 32 controls at time of diagnosis. RESULTS: PVALB gene expression was downregulated in MS (fold change = 3.7 ± 1.2, P < 0.001 compared to controls) reflecting the significant reduction of PVALB+ cell density in cortical lesions, to a greater extent in MS patients with high meningeal inflammation (51.8, P < 0.001). Likewise, post-mortem CSF-PVALB levels were higher in MS compared to controls (fold change = 196 ± 36, P < 0.001) and correlated with decreased PVALB+ cell density (r = -0.64, P < 0.001) and increased MHC-II+ microglia density (r = 0.74, P < 0.01), as well as with early age of onset (r = -0.69, P < 0.05), shorter time to wheelchair (r = -0.49, P < 0.05) and early age of death (r = -0.65, P < 0.01). Increased CSF-PVALB levels were detected in MS patients at diagnosis compared to controls (P = 0.002). Significant correlation was found between CSF-PVALB levels and cortical lesion number on MRI (R = 0.28, P = 0.006) and global cortical thickness (R = -0.46, P < 0.001), better than Nf-L levels. CSF-PVALB levels increased in MS patients with severe cognitive impairment (mean ± SEM:25.2 ± 7.5 ng/mL) compared to both cognitively normal (10.9 ± 2.4, P = 0.049) and mild cognitive impaired (10.1 ± 2.9, P = 0.024) patients. CONCLUSIONS: CSF-PVALB levels reflect loss of cortical interneurons in MS patients with more severe disease course and might represent an early, new MS-specific biomarker of cortical neurodegeneration, atrophy, and cognitive decline.

Visual-Attentional Load Unveils Slowed Processing Speed in Multiple Sclerosis Patients: A Pilot Study with a Tablet-Based Videogame.

Slowing in information processing speed (IPS) is the key cognitive deficit in multiple sclerosis (MS). Testing IPS in different cognitive load conditions by using computerized tools might reveal initial IPS slowness underestimated by classic paper-and-pencil tests. To investigate the extent to which IPS can be affected by increased task demands, we developed three tasks based on the manipulation of the visual-attentional load, delivered with a home-made, tablet-based videogame. Fifty-one patients with MS (pwMS), classified as having no cognitive impairment in classic paper-and-pencil tests, and 20 healthy controls (HC) underwent the videogame tasks; reaction times (RTs) and accuracy were recorded. A significant reduced performance of pwMS as compared with HC was found on the videogame tasks, with pwMS being on average slower and less accurate than HC. Furthermore, pwMS showed a significantly more pronounced decrement in accuracy as a function of the visual-attentional load, suggesting a higher susceptibility to increased task demands. Significant correlations among the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) and the videogame mean RTs and accuracy were found, providing evidence for the concurrent validity of the videogame as a valid tool to test IPS in pwMS. The high potential that might derive from the adoption of computerized assessment tools in clinical practice should be taken into consideration and investigated further.