Cytokine profiles and phenotype regulation of antigen presenting cells by genotype-I porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus isolates.

The present study examined the immunological response of antigen presenting cells (APC) to genotype-I isolates of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection by analysing the cytokine profile induced and evaluating the changes taking place upon infection on immunologically relevant cell markers (MHCI, MHCII, CD80/86, CD14, CD16, CD163, CD172a, SWC9). Several types of APC were infected with 39 PRRSV isolates. The results show that different isolates were able to induce different patterns of IL-10 and TNF-α. The four possible phenotypes based on the ability to induce IL-10 and/or TNF-α were observed, although different cell types seemed to have different capabilities. In addition, isolates inducing different cytokine-release profiles on APC could induce different expression of cell markers.

Chlamydia trachomatis infection modulates trophoblast cytokine/chemokine production.

It is well established that intrauterine infections can pose a threat to pregnancy by gaining access to the placenta and fetus, and clinical studies have strongly linked bacterial infections with preterm labor. Although Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) can infect the placenta and decidua, little is known about its effects on trophoblast cell immune function. We have demonstrated that Ct infects trophoblast cells to form inclusions and completes the life cycle within these cells by generating infectious elementary bodies. Moreover, infection with Ct leads to differential modulation of the trophoblast cell's production of cytokines and chemokines. Using two human first trimester trophoblast cell lines, Sw.71 and H8, the most striking feature we found was that Ct infection results in a strong induction of IL-1beta secretion and a concomitant reduction in MCP-1 (CCL2) production in both cell lines. In addition, we have found that Ct infection of the trophoblast results in the cleavage and degradation of NF-kappaB p65. These findings suggest that the effect of a Chlamydia infection on trophoblast secretion of chemokines and cytokines involves both activation of innate immune receptors expressed by the trophoblast and virulence factors secreted into the trophoblast by the bacteria. Such altered trophoblast innate immune responses may have a profound impact on the microenvironment of the maternal-fetal interface and this could influence pregnancy outcome.

Regulation of toll-like receptors 3, 7 and 9 in porcine alveolar macrophages by different genotype 1 strains of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus.

The toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in the innate host defense against pathogens. Endosomal TLRs, TLR3, TLR7/8, and TLR9 are involved in antiviral responses by promoting the production of antiviral cytokines such as type I interferons. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is an important disease causing economically high losses to the swine industry worldwide and caused by a single stranded positive sense RNA virus, known as PRRS virus (PRRSV). Studies focused on the interaction between PRRSV and TLRs are scarce. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the expression of TLR3, TLR7 and TLR9 in porcine alveolar macrophages (PAM) infected with different genotype 1 PRRSV strains previously sequenced and characterized by their ability to induce TNF-α: 3262 (TNF-α inducer), 3267 (TNF-α not inducer) and an attenuated vaccine strain (strain Deventer, PorcilisPRRS, Merck) that replicates scarcely in PAM. PAM were infected with the different PRRSV strains (at 0.1 multiplicity of infection) for 48 h or mock-stimulated with PAM supernatants. Cells were collected at different time-points (0 h, 6 h, 12 h, 24 h, 36 h, 48 h) to determine the kinetics of viral replication by quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) and the expression of TLR3, 7 and 9 by qRT-PCR, flow cytometry and indirect immunofluorescence assay. Although infection with PRRSV did not affect significantly relative levels of any TLR mRNA transcript (normalized to ß-actin expression), this infection resulted in significant differences in the proportion of cells expressing TLR3. Thus, in PAM infected with PRRSV strain 3262 the proportion of TLR3+ cells significantly increased from 24h compared with the controls; in contrast strain 3267 resulted in a lower proportion of TLR3+ PAM. Interestingly, strain 3262 replicate to lower levels than 3267 at comparable post-inoculation times. For strain DV, the results indicated that this strain did not replicate substantially in PAM and did not stimulated TLR3 expression. These observations suggest that at least TLR3 is regulated differentially by different genotype 1 PRRSV strains and this seems to be related apparently to the replication levels of each strain, as well as, to the TNF-α inducing capability. The fact that mRNA transcripts were kept constant also suggests that this regulation occurs at a post-transcriptional level.

Genetic and immunobiological diversities of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome genotype I strains.

Genetic diversity of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) has been based on ORF5/GP5 and ORF7/N protein variations. Complete viral genome studies are limited and focused on a single or a few set of strains. Moreover, there is a general tendency to extrapolate results obtained from a single isolate to the overall PRRSV population. In the present study, six genotype-I isolates of PRRSV were sequenced from ORF1a to ORF7. Phylogenetic comparisons and the variability degree of known linear B-epitopes were done considering other available full-length genotype-I sequences. Cytokine induction of all strains was also evaluated in different cellular systems. Non structural protein 2 (nsp2) was the most variable part of the virus with 2 out of 6 strains harboring a 74 aa deletion. Deletions were also found in ORF3 and ORF4. Phylogenetic analyses showed that isolates could be grouped differently depending on the ORF examined and the highest similarity with the full genome cluster was found for the nsp9. Interestingly, most of predicted linear B-epitopes in the literature, particularly in nsp2 and GP4 regions, were found deleted or varied in some of our isolates. Moreover, 4 strains, those with deletions in nsp2, induced TNF-α and 3 induced IL-10. These results underline the high genetic diversity of PRRSV mainly in nsp1, nsp2 and ORFs 3 and 4. This variability also affects most of the known linear B-epitopes of the virus. Accordingly, different PRRSV strains might have substantially different immunobiological properties. These data can contribute to the understanding of PRRSV complexity.