Victim Blaming: Being a Victim Twice. Comparison of Emotional and Socio-Cultural Aspects.

World Health Organization Director-General Margaret Chan said that violence against women is a global structural issue. It is a health problem of epidemic dimensions, the analysis of 141 researches carried out in 81 countries shows that 35% of women suffer some form of violence during their lifetime. These data were presented in the largest study ever done on the physical and sexual abuse suffered by women in all regions of the planet. When we talk about violence against women we refer to the definition provided by the United Nations and the World Health Organization. As regards the definition provided by the UN, the expression covers "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering, including threats of such acts, coercion and arbitrary deprivation of liberty, both in public and private life". The WHO definition outlines violence as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself. But the definitions don't end there. The Convention of the Council of Europe, the first regulatory element on the matter of preventing and combating violence against women, states that the term "domestic violence" refers to all acts of violence, whether physical, sexual, psychological or economic, occurring within the family or household or between current or former spouses or partners, whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim. The document, which starts from the same cultural reading of the roots of violence against women, commits the signatory states to protect women from all forms of violence and to prevent, prosecute and eliminate violence against women and domestic violence. The Convention requires states parties to organize "specialised immediate, short- and long-term support services for each victim of any act of violence falling within the scope" of the Convention. Unfortunately violence is a dynamic event, in fact it is constantly changing, so we are witnessing a continuous transformation of the forms of violence. In particular, in this study we will address the issue of secondary victimization, which unfortunately represents an increasingly present form of violence. citation. This form of violence was defined by the American psychologist, William J. Ryan, Jr, who in 1971 defined it as a phenomenon of secondary victimization.

Environmental DNA bioassays corroborate field data for detection of overwintering species at risk Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii).

Environmental DNA (eDNA) is gaining traction in conservation ecology as a powerful tool for detecting species at risk. We developed a quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay to detect a DNA amplicon fragment of the mitochondrial nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide locus of the Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) for detecting overwintering individuals. Seventy-eight water samples were collected from 17 wetland sites in Ontario, Canada. We used traditional field data to identify a priori positive and negative control sites. Fifty percent of positive control sites amplified. Detection was related to the number of individuals estimated from field observations in at least one region surveyed. Positive control sites had lower total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity in relation to negative control sites. Shedding rates were within the same order of magnitude for brumating and active turtles. We recommend collecting additional samples at a larger number of locations to maximize detection. Recommended sampling design changes may overshadow the additional effects of water chemistry and low eDNA shedding rates. eDNA offers tremendous potential to practitioners conducting species at risk assessments in environmental consulting by providing a faster, more efficient method of detection compared with traditional surveys.

Environmental DNA detection of endangered and invasive species in Kejimkujik National Park and Historic Site.

The use of environmental DNA (eDNA) allows the early detection of aquatic species at low densities (e.g., elusive and invasive species), which otherwise could be challenging to monitor using conventional techniques. Here, we assess the ability of eDNA sampling to detect the presence or absence of one species at risk (Blanding's turtle) and two invasive species (chain pickerel and smallmouth bass) in Kejimkujik National Park and National Historic Site, Nova Scotia, where the aquatic system is highly acidic and rich in organic compounds. Five replicates of 1 L water samples were taken per sampling site. Water filtration and eDNA extractions were performed on-site, while qPCR reactions were performed in the laboratory using species-specific assays. Samples were treated with an inhibition removal kit and analyzed pre- and post-inhibition removal. Despite the low pH and PCR inhibitors in water samples, our results showed positive eDNA detections in almost all expected positive sites (except in one site for Blanding's turtle). Detections of the target species were also observed at sites where their presence was previously unknown. Our study supports the advantage of eDNA to monitor species at low densities, revealing new distributions or recently invaded areas. We also demonstrate how eDNA can directly instruct management strategies in Kejimkujik.

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF EMYDOIDEA HERPESVIRUS 1 IN FREE-RANGING BLANDING'S TURTLES (EMYDOIDEA BLANDINGII) FROM ILLINOIS.

Herpesvirus infections have been associated with high morbidity and mortality in populations of captive emydid chelonians worldwide, but novel herpesviruses have also recently been identified in apparently healthy free-ranging emydid populations. Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii), an endangered species in Illinois, has experienced range-wide declines because of habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. A novel herpesvirus, Emydoidea herpesvirus 1 (EBHV1), was identified in Blanding's turtles in DuPage County, IL, in 2015. Combined oral-cloacal swabs were collected from radio transmitter-fitted and trapped (n = 54) turtles multiple times over the 2016 activity season. In addition, swabs were collected at a single time point from trapped and incidentally captured (n = 84) Blanding's turtles in DuPage (n = 33) and Lake (n = 51) counties over the same field season. Each sample was tested for EBHV1 using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). EBHV1 was detected in 15 adult females for an overall prevalence of 10.8% (n = 15/138; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 6.2-17.3%). In radio transmitter-fitted females, there was a significantly higher prevalence of EBHV1 DNA in May (23.8%, n = 10/42) than June (3.6%, n = 1/28), July (0%, n = 0/42), August (0%, n = 0/47), or September (7.7%, n = 3/39) (odds ratio: 12.19; 95% CI: 3.60-41.30). The peak in May corresponds to the onset of nesting and may be associated with increased physiologic demands. Furthermore, all positive turtles were qPCR negative in subsequent months. There were no clinical signs associated with EBHV1 detection. This investigation is the critical first step to characterizing the implications of EBHV1 for Blanding's turtle population health and identifying management changes that may improve sustainability.

MEASURING FAT CONTENT USING COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY TO ESTABLISH A BODY CONDITION INDEX IN FREE-RANGING BLANDING'S TURTLES (EMYDOIDEA BLANDINGII) IN ILLINOIS.

Health assessment of free-ranging populations requires an integrated approach, often incorporating a method to measure mass as a representation of the animals' ability to utilize environmental resources. In chelonians, direct measurements of mass have historically served as a corollary for body condition. However, this method may not accurately represent the true fat volume (FV) and may be skewed by the presence of eggs, shell size, or muscle mass. The objective of this study was to use computed tomography (CT) to develop a model for determining body condition index (BCI) in free-ranging Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii). Mass, shell measurements, and FV were measured by CT in 65 free-ranging Blanding's turtles from Lake and DuPage counties in Illinois. Twenty-one different models were built for BCI using both FV and fat percentage (FP) as dependent variables. The best fit model for FP included the relationship between mass and carapace length with nearly 60% model support. The model for FV demonstrated a similar relationship but had only 18% support. Linear models with BCI as the dependent variable showed that juveniles had a higher FP than adults and females with more eggs had a lower FP. FP can be calculated in the field with nearly 60% accuracy compared to CT-assessed FP as a component of a physical exam and population health survey to assess the effectiveness of conservation efforts for the endangered Blanding's turtle.

Genetic effects of landscape, habitat preference and demography on three co-occurring turtle species.

Expanding the scope of landscape genetics beyond the level of single species can help to reveal how species traits influence responses to environmental change. Multispecies studies are particularly valuable in highly threatened taxa, such as turtles, in which the impacts of anthropogenic change are strongly influenced by interspecific differences in life history strategies, habitat preferences and mobility. We sampled approximately 1500 individuals of three co-occurring turtle species across a gradient of habitat change (including varying loss of wetlands and agricultural conversion of upland habitats) in the Midwestern USA. We used genetic clustering and multiple regression methods to identify associations between genetic structure and permanent landscape features, past landscape composition and landscape change in each species. Two aquatic generalists (the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta, and the snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina) both exhibited population genetic structure consistent with isolation by distance, modulated by aquatic landscape features. Genetic divergence for the more terrestrial Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii), on the other hand, was not strongly associated with geographic distance or aquatic features, and Bayesian clustering analysis indicated that many Emydoidea populations were genetically isolated. Despite long generation times, all three species exhibited associations between genetic structure and postsettlement habitat change, indicating that long generation times may not be sufficient to delay genetic drift resulting from recent habitat fragmentation. The concordances in genetic structure observed between aquatic species, as well as isolation in the endangered, long-lived Emydoidea, reinforce the need to consider both landscape composition and demographic factors in assessing differential responses to habitat change in co-occurring species.

Emydomyces testavorans Surveillance in Multiple Free-Ranging Terrestrial and Aquatic Chelonian Species in Illinois, USA.

The order Onygenales contains multiple fungal pathogens that affect free-ranging and zoo-housed reptilian species. Emydomyces testavorans, an onygenalean fungus associated with skin and shell disease, has been sporadically detected in aquatic chelonians. Because of the recent discovery of this organism, little is known about its prevalence in free-ranging chelonians. The objective of this study was to perform surveillance for E. testavorans in six free-ranging aquatic and terrestrial chelonian species in Illinois, USA: Blanding's turtles (n=437; Emydoidea blandingii), painted turtles (n=199; Chrysemys picta), common snapping turtles (n=35; Chelydra serpentina), red-eared sliders (n=62; RES; Trachemys scripta elegans), eastern box turtles (n=73; Terrapene carolina carolina) and ornate box turtles (n=29; Terrapene ornata). Combined cloacal-oral swabs (COSs) or shell (carapace and plastron surfaces) swabs were collected from 2019 to 2021 and tested for E. testavorans using quantitative PCR. The PCR detected E. testavorans in COSs of an adult male, subadult female, and juvenile male Blanding's turtle (0.6%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.2-1.9%) and a shell swab from an adult female RES (1.6%; 95% CI, 0-8.7%). Shell lesions consistent with E. testavorans infection were present in two of the positive Blanding's turtles. These results document the rarity of this pathogen on the landscape in Illinois. Additional studies should determine this pathogen's impact on individuals and clarify its significance for conservation efforts of Blanding's turtle, in which E. testavorans has not been reported previously.

Evaluating Different Methods For Determining Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate In Free-Living Blanding's Turtles (Emydoidea Blandingii).

Characterizing host factors affecting individual health can be important in the conservation of many chelonians, including the Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii). However, many routine clinical pathology tests do not reliably detect differences in health status in reptiles. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) has been shown to characterize inflammation in many species, including tortoises, and may be useful in assessing Blanding's turtles. The purpose of our study was to evaluate two methods of ESR measurement in free-ranging Blanding's turtles. Sixty Blanding's turtles captured at two sites in Illinois received a complete physical examination, and blood was collected for determination of packed cell volume, total solids, and ESR with both microhematocrit tubes and commercial kits (Winpette). Method agreement was assessed with Passing-Bablok regression. Associations between ESR and demographic, environmental, and health factors were determined by linear regression. The microhematocrit tube method proportionately overestimated ESR compared with the Winpette. With the use of both measurement methods, ESR was significantly different between study sites, higher in adult Blanding's turtles, and higher in females that were gravid compared with those that were not. ESR was also negatively associated with packed cell volume. ESR values in Blanding's turtles are comparable to other reptiles, and although microhematocrit tube and Winpette results are not interchangeable, their associations with biological predictors are similar, and either method has the potential to be used with separate reference intervals to assess turtles for inflammatory conditions.

Detection of a novel herpesvirus associated with squamous cell carcinoma in a free-ranging Blanding's turtle.

The spread of both infectious and noninfectious diseases through wildlife populations is of increasing concern. Neoplastic diseases are rarely associated with population-level impacts in wildlife; however, impacts on individual health can be severe and might reflect deteriorating environmental conditions. An adult male free-ranging Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) originally captured in 2005 and deemed healthy, was recaptured in 2018 with a 1 × 1.5 cm intra-oral broad-based right mandibular mass. An excisional biopsy was performed, and histopathology revealed squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Consensus herpesvirus PCR identified a novel herpesvirus (proposed name Emydoidea herpesvirus 2 [EBHV-2]) within the tumor. EBHV-2 shares 85% sequence homology with Terrapene herpesvirus 2 (TerHV-2), a herpesvirus linked to fibropapillomas in eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina). Virus-associated fibropapillomas have been identified in multiple marine turtle species and have had debilitating effects on their populations, but to date, virus-associated SCCs are rarely reported.

Personality in Zoo-Hatched Blanding's Turtles Affects Behavior and Survival After Reintroduction Into the Wild.

Reintroduction programs in which captive-bred or reared animals are released into natural habitats are considered a key approach for conservation; however, success rates have generally been low. Accounting for factors that enable individual animals to have a greater chance of survival can not only improve overall conservation outcomes but can also impact the welfare of the individual animals involved. One such factor may be individual personality, and personality research is a growing field. We designed a project to ascertain the presence of personality traits in Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii), a species of special concern in the state of Michigan, and to assess potential links between traits and post-release success. As hypothesized, the Blanding's turtles in this study displayed behavioral responses to modified open field tests indicative of distinct personality traits: exploration, boldness, and aggression. Additionally, the personality traits were correlated differently with survival and behavior patterns when the turtles were released into the Shiawassee National Wildlife Refuge. More exploratory turtles had higher survival rates, while neither boldness nor aggression was related to survival. Exploratory turtles were also more likely to travel longer distances after release. The use of muskrat dens was related to increased survival, and both bolder and more exploratory turtles made higher use of this feature. Exploratory and aggressive turtles were found basking outside of water more often, while bold turtles were more likely to be found at the water surface. Both these basking behaviors may increase the risk of predation and may be reflective of a trade-off between the risk and behaviors related to physiological health. Understanding how personality affects behavior and survival post-release can be a critical tool for improving reintroduction success. Zoo animal welfare scientists and practitioners can implement approaches that improve the welfare of individuals within the context of conservation initiatives.

Road avoidance and its energetic consequences for reptiles.

Roads are one of the most widespread human-caused habitat modifications that can increase wildlife mortality rates and alter behavior. Roads can act as barriers with variable permeability to movement and can increase distances wildlife travel to access habitats. Movement is energetically costly, and avoidance of roads could therefore impact an animal's energy budget. We tested whether reptiles avoid roads or road crossings and explored whether the energetic consequences of road avoidance decreased individual fitness. Using telemetry data from Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii; 11,658 locations of 286 turtles from 15 sites) and eastern massasaugas (Sistrurus catenatus; 1,868 locations of 49 snakes from 3 sites), we compared frequency of observed road crossings and use of road-adjacent habitat by reptiles to expected frequencies based on simulated correlated random walks. Turtles and snakes did not avoid habitats near roads, but both species avoided road crossings. Compared with simulations, turtles made fewer crossings of paved roads with low speed limits and more crossings of paved roads with high speed limits. Snakes made fewer crossings of all road types than expected based on simulated paths. Turtles traveled longer daily distances when their home range contained roads, but the predicted energetic cost was negligible: substantially less than the cost of producing one egg. Snakes with roads in their home range did not travel further per day than snakes without roads in their home range. We found that turtles and snakes avoided crossing roads, but road avoidance is unlikely to impact fitness through energetic expenditures. Therefore, mortality from vehicle strikes remains the most significant impact of roads on reptile populations.

Development and validation of a quantitative PCR assay for detection of Emydoidea herpesvirus 1 in free-ranging Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii).

Blanding's turtles (Emydoidea blandingii), an endangered species in Illinois, have experienced range-wide declines because of habitat degradation and fragmentation, predation, and road mortality. While ongoing studies are crucial to a thorough understanding of the natural history and demographics in these disjointed Illinois populations, infectious disease threats have been largely unevaluated. Herpesvirus outbreaks have been associated with high morbidity and mortality in populations of captive tortoises and turtles worldwide, including the family Emydidae (pond and box turtles). However, novel herpesviruses including Terrapene herpesvirus 1, Emydid herpesvirus 1 and 2, and Glyptemys herpesvirus 1 and 2, have recently been identified in apparently healthy free-ranging freshwater turtles. In 2015, 20 free-ranging Blanding's turtles in DuPage County, Illinois were screened for a herpesvirus using consensus PCR. A novel herpesvirus species (Emydoidea herpesvirus 1; EBHV1) was identified in two animals and shared a high degree of sequence homology to other freshwater turtle herpesviruses. Two quantitative real-time PCR assays, using EBHV1 primer-1 and primer-2, were developed to target an EBHV1-specific segment of the DNA-dependent DNA polymerase gene and validated. Both assays performed with high efficiency (slope = -3.2; R2 = 1), low intra-assay variability, and low inter-assay variability (coefficient of variation <2% at all dilutions). However, EBHV1 primer-2 displayed less variation and was selected to test clinical samples and five closely related herpesvirus control samples. Results indicate that this assay is specific for EBHV1, has a linear range of detection from 108 to 101 viral copies per reaction, and can categorically detect as few as 1 viral copy per reaction. This qPCR assay provides a valuable diagnostic tool for future characterization of EBHV1 epidemiology.

Colonization and usage of an artificial urban wetland complex by freshwater turtles.

Conservation authorities invest heavily in the restoration and/or creation of wetlands to counteract the destruction of habitat caused by urbanization. Monitoring the colonization of these new wetlands is critical to an adaptive management process. We conducted a turtle mark-recapture survey in a 250 ha artificially created wetland complex in a large North American city (Toronto, Ontario). We found that two of Ontario's eight native turtle species (Snapping turtle (SN), Chelydra serpentina, and Midland Painted (MP) turtle, Chrysemys picta marginata) were abundant and both were confirmed nesting. The Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) was present but not well established. Species richness and turtle density were not equally distributed throughout the wetland complex. We noted SN almost exclusively populated one water body, while other areas of the wetland had a varying representation of both species. The sex ratios of both SN and MP turtles were 1:1. We tracked the movement of Snapping and Blanding's turtles and found that most turtles explored at least two water bodies in the park, that females explored more water bodies than males, and that 95% of turtles showed fidelity to individual overwintering wetlands. We performed DNA analysis of two Blanding's turtles found in the created wetlands and could not assign these turtles to any known profiled populations. The genetic data suggest that the turtles probably belong to a remnant local population. We discuss the implications of our results for connectivity of artificial wetlands and the importance of the whole wetland complex to this turtle assemblage.

Relating annual increments of the endangered Blanding's turtle plastron growth to climate.

This research is the first published study to report a relationship between climate variables and plastron growth increments of turtles, in this case the endangered Nova Scotia Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingii). We used techniques and software common to the discipline of dendrochronology to successfully cross-date our growth increment data series, to detrend and average our series of 80 immature Blanding's turtles into one common chronology, and to seek correlations between the chronology and environmental temperature and precipitation variables. Our cross-dated chronology had a series intercorrelation of 0.441 (above 99% confidence interval), an average mean sensitivity of 0.293, and an average unfiltered autocorrelation of 0.377. Our master chronology represented increments from 1975 to 2007 (33 years), with index values ranging from a low of 0.688 in 2006 to a high of 1.303 in 1977. Univariate climate response function analysis on mean monthly air temperature and precipitation values revealed a positive correlation with the previous year's May temperature and current year's August temperature; a negative correlation with the previous year's October temperature; and no significant correlation with precipitation. These techniques for determining growth increment response to environmental variables should be applicable to other turtle species and merit further exploration.