Demystifying group-4 polyolefin hydrogenolysis catalysis. Gaseous propane hydrogenolysis mechanism over the same catalysts.

A kinetic/mechanistic investigation of gaseous propane hydrogenolysis over the single-site heterogeneous polyolefin depolymerization catalysts AlS/ZrNp2 and AlS/HfNp2 (AlS = sulfated alumina, Np = neopentyl), is use to probe intrinsic catalyst properties without the complexities introduced by time- and viscosity-dependent polymer medium effects. In a polymer-free automated plug-flow catalytic reactor, propane hydrogenolysis turnover frequencies approach 3,000 h-1 at 150 °C. Both catalysts exhibit approximately linear relationships between rate and [H2] at substoichiometric [H2] with rate law orders of 0.66 ± 0.09 and 0.48 ± 0.07 for Hf and Zr, respectively; at higher [H2], the rates approach zero-order in [H2]. Reaction orders in [C3H8] and [catalyst] are essentially zero-order under all conditions, with the former implying rapid, irreversible alkane binding/activation. This rate law, activation parameter, and DFT energy span analysis support a scenario in which [H2] is pivotal in one of two plausible and competing rate-determining transition states-bimolecular metal-alkyl bond hydrogenolysis vs. unimolecular ß-alkyl elimination. The Zr and Hf catalyst activation parameters, ΔH‡ = 16.8 ± 0.2 kcal mol-1 and 18.2 ± 0.6 kcal mol-1, respectively, track the relative turnover frequencies, while ΔS‡ = -19.1 ± 0.8 and -16.7 ± 1.4 cal mol-1 K-1, respectively, imply highly organized transition states. These catalysts maintain activity up to 200 °C, while time-on-stream data indicate multiday activities with an extrapolated turnover number ~92,000 at 150 °C for the Zr catalyst. This methodology is attractive for depolymerization catalyst discovery and process optimization.

A Cost-Effective and Chemical-Recycling Approach for Facile Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose Materials.

Cellulose is difficult to melt or dissolve. The dissolution and regeneration process paves the way to convert cellulose into diverse forms but still suffers from high costs and environmental pollution. Here, we developed a method that uses aqueous alkali to efficiently dissolve cellulose at a temperature above 0 °C in minutes for fabricating regenerated cellulose. Cellulose was modified with minimal carboxymethyl groups to weaken the intermolecular interaction and improve its dissolution. The modified cellulose can be commercially obtained from carboxymethyl cellulose manufacturing with low cost and high quality. The use of only aqueous alkali reduces pollution and facilitates chemical recycling, and the moderate dissolving temperature reduces energy consumption. The regenerated cellulose materials display excellent mechanical properties and can be recycled or biodegraded after use. The method allows the use of diverse raw materials and modifications to broaden its applicability. The study develops a low-cost and eco-friendly method to fabricate regenerated cellulose.

Ultrahigh Heat/Fire-Resistant, Mechanically Robust, and Closed-Loop Chemical Recyclable Polycarbonate Enabled by Facile Bond Dissociation Energy Modulation.

Plastics serve as an essential foundation in contemporary society. Nevertheless, meeting the rigorous performance demands in advanced applications and addressing their end-of-life disposal are two critical challenges that persist. Here, an innovative and facile method is introduced for the design and scalable production of polycarbonate, a key engineering plastic, simultaneously achieving high performance and closed-loop chemical recyclability. The bisphenol framework of polycarbonate is strategically adjusted from the low-bond-dissociation-energy bisphenol A to high-bond-dissociation-energy 4,4'-dihydroxydiphenyl, in combination with the incorporation of polysiloxane segments. As expected, the enhanced bond dissociation energy endows the polycarbonate with an extremely high glow-wire flammability index surpassing 1025 °C, a 0.8 mm UL-94 V-0 rating, a high LOI value of 39.2%, and more than 50% reduction of heat and smoke release. Furthermore, the π-π stacking interactions within biphenyl structures resulted in a significant enhancement of mechanical strength by as more as 37.7%, and also played a positive role in achieving a lower dielectric constant. Significantly, the copolymer exhibited outstanding closed-loop chemical recyclability, allowing for facile depolymerization into bisphenol monomers and the repolymerized copolymer retains its high heat and fire resistance. This work provides a novel insight in the design of high-performance and closed-loop chemical recyclable polymeric materials.

Deamination of Polyols from the Glycolysis of Polyurethane.

Methylenedianiline (MDA) is a secondary, undesired, product of the glycolysis process of polyurethane (PU) scraps due to hydrolysis and pyrolysis side reactions. As an aromatic and carcinogen amine, MDA poses different problems in handling, transporting, and labelling recycled polyols derived from glycolysis, hindering the closure of PU recycling loop. Aiming to provide a solution to this issue, in this work different deaminating agents (DAs) were investigated with the purpose of analyzing their reactivity with MDA. A first part of the study was devoted to the analysis of MDA formation as a function of reaction time and catalyst concentration (potassium acetate) during glycolysis. It was observed that the amount of MDA increases almost linearly with the extent of PU depolymerization and catalyst content. Among the DAs analyzed 2-ethylhexyl glycidyl ether (2-EHGE), and acetic anhydride (Ac2 O) showed interesting performance, which allowed MDA content to be diminished below the limit for labelling prescription in 30 minutes. PU rigid foams were, therefore, synthesized from the corresponding recycled products and characterized in terms of thermal and mechanical performance. Ac2 O-deaminated polyols led to structurally unstable foams with poor compressive strength, while 2-EHGE-deaminated products allowed the production of foams with improved mechanical performance and unaltered thermal conductivity.

Efficient recycling pathway of bio-based composite polyurethane foams via sustainable diamine.

Aminolysis is widely recognized as a valuable chemical route for depolymerizing polymeric materials containing ester, amide, or urethane functional groups, including polyurethane foams. Bio-based polyurethane foams, pristine and reinforced with 40 wt% of sustainable fillers, were depolymerized in the presence of bio-derived butane-1,4-diamine, BDA. A process comparison was made using fossil-derived ethane-1,2-diamine, EDA, by varying amine/polyurethane ratio (F/A, 1:1 and 1:0.6). The obtained depolymerized systems were analyzed by FTIR and NMR characterizations to understand the effect of both diamines on the degradation pathway. The use of bio-based BDA seemed to be more effective with respect to conventional EDA, owing to its stronger basicity (and thus higher nucleophilicity), corresponding to faster depolymerization rates. BDA-based depolymerized systems were then employed to prepare second-generation bio-based composite polyurethane foams by partial replacement of isocyanate components (20 wt%). The morphological, mechanical, and thermal conductivity properties of the second-generation polyurethane foams were evaluated. The best performances (σ10 %=71 ± 9 kPa, λ = 0.042 ± 0.015 W∙ m-1 ∙K-1) were attained by employing the lowest F/A ratio (1:0.6); this demonstrates their potential application in different sectors such as packaging or construction, fulfilling the paradigm of the circular economy.

A new strategy for PET depolymerization: Application of bimetallic MOF-74 as a selective catalyst.

Large-volume production of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), especially in the form of bottles and food packaging containers, causes problems with polymer waste management. Waste PET could be recycled thermally, mechanically or chemically and the last method allows to obtain individual monomers, but most often it is carried out in the presence of homogeneous catalysts, that are difficult to separate and reuse. In view of this, this work reports for the first time, application of bimetallic MOF-74 - as heterogeneous catalyst - for depolymerization of PET with high monomer (bishydroxyethyl terephthalate, BHET) recovery. The effect of type and amount of second metal in the MOF-74 (Mg/M) was systematically investigated. The results showed increased activity of MOF-74 (Mg/M) containing Co2+, Zn2+ and Mn2+ as a second metal, while the opposite correlation was observed for Cu2+ and Ni2+. It was found that the highest catalytic activity was demonstrated by the introduction of Mg-Mn into MOF-74 with ratio molar 1:1, which resulted in complete depolymerization of PET and 91.8% BHET yield within 4 h. Furthermore, the obtained catalyst showed good stability in 5 reaction cycles and allowed to achieve high-purity BHET, which was confirmed by HPLC analysis. The as-prepared MOF-74 (Mg/Mn) was easy to separate from the post-reaction mixture, clean and reuse in the next depolymerization reaction.

A life cycle assessment of the laboratory-scale oxidative liquefaction as the chemical recycling method of the end-of-life wind turbine blades.

According to the latest reports, estimated values of 50,000-66 000 t of end-of-life wind turbine blades (WTB) are expected to be decommissioned in Europe in 2025-2030, posing a significant threat from the environmental and waste management perspectives. This study aims to present the preliminary Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) with sensitivity and uncertainty analysis of the lab-scale oxidative liquefaction process of the WTB, as the original method to recover the high-quality glass fibers with simultaneous production of the secondary chemicals: phenols, ketones, acids, and fatty acids, from the oxidation of the epoxy resin from the polymer matrix. The LCA is based on the experimental results of the oxidative liquefaction process carried out on a laboratory scale using a Parr 500 ml batch reactor, at two different conditions sets for the functional unit (FU) of 1 kg of treated WTB. Each of the analyzed scenarios resulted in higher impact indicators compared to the landfilling. The highest quality fibers were obtained at 350 °C and 40 wt % H2O2 content resulted in 5.52 ± 1.20 kgCO2 eq Climate change impact and 97.8 ± 20.6 MJ of Resource use, fossil per kg of recycled WTB. The lowest quality fiber recovered in char, yet well separated from the matrix obtained at 250 °C and the lowest H2O2 content resulted in 0.0953 ± 0.487 kgCO2 eq Climate change impact and 8.84 ± 7.90 MJ of Resource use, fossil per kg of recycled WTB. The hot spot and sensitivity analysis indicated, that the oxidizer for the process - hydrogen peroxide, when acquired as a shelf product causes a significant burden on the whole process, with sensitivity ratios on the total impact indicators varying across the categories from 0.56 to 0.99. Substitution of H2O2 with theoretical 0-input oxidizer allowed to significantly lower environmental load of the recycling process, which in all of the analyzed scenarios presented environmental benefits compared to landfilling with recovery of the glass fiber and secondary chemicals.

Degradation Product-Promoted Depolymerization Strategy for Chemical Recycling of Poly(bisphenol A carbonate).

The accumulation of waste plastics has a severe impact on the environment, and therefore, the development of efficient chemical recycling methods has become an extremely important task. In this regard, a new strategy of degradation product-promoted depolymerization process was proposed. Using N,N'-dimethyl-ethylenediamine (DMEDA) as a depolymerization reagent, an efficient chemical recycling of poly(bisphenol A carbonate) (BPA-PC or PC) material was achieved under mild conditions. The degradation product 1,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone (DMI) was proven to be a critical factor in facilitating the depolymerization process. This strategy does not require catalysts or auxiliary solvents, making it a truly green process. This method improves the recycling efficiency of PC and promotes the development of plastic reutilization.

Mechanochemically Promoted Functionalization of Postconsumer Poly(Methyl Methacrylate) and Poly(α-Methylstyrene) for Bulk Depolymerization.

We describe a methodology of post-polymerization functionalization to enable subsequent bulk depolymerization to monomer by utilizing mechanochemical macro-radical generation. By harnessing ultrasonic chain-scission in the presence of N-hydroxyphthalimide methacrylate (PhthMA), we successfully chain-end functionalize polymers to promote subsequent depolymerization in bulk, achieving up to 81% depolymerization of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and poly(α-methylstyrene) (PAMS) within 30 min. This method of depolymerization yields a high-purity monomer that can be repolymerized. Moreover, as compared to the most common methods of depolymerization, this work is most efficient with ultra-high molecular weight (UHMW) polymers, establishing a method with the potential to address highly persistent, non-degradable all-carbon backbone plastic materials. Lastly, we demonstrate the expansion of this depolymerization method to commercial cell cast PMMA, achieving high degrees of depolymerization from post-consumer waste. This work is the first demonstration of applying PhthMA-promoted depolymerization strategies in homopolymer PMMA and PAMS prepared by conventional polymerization methods.

An Integrative Chemical Recycling Approach for Catalytic Oxidation of Epoxy Resin and in situ Separation of Degraded Products.

Although many approaches have been proposed to recycling waste epoxy resin (EP), the separation of mixed degraded products remains a challenge due to their similar structures. To address this, we present a catalytic oxidation strategy that enables mild degradation of EP and in situ separation of degraded products through supramolecular interactions. The oxidative degradation relies on FeIV=O radicals with strong oxidizing properties, which are generated from the electron transfer of FeCl2 with reaction reagents. As the FeIV=O radicals attacked the C-N bonds of EP, EP was broken into fragments rich in active functional groups. Meanwhile, the FeIV=O radicals were reduced to iron ions that can coordinate with the carboxyl groups on the fragments. As a result, the degraded products with different carboxyl content can be effortlessly separated into liquid and solid phase by coordinating with the catalyst. The success of this work lays the foundation for high-value application of degraded products and provides new design ideas for recycling waste plastics with complex compositions.

Using Redox-Switchable Polymerization Catalysis to Synthesize a Chemically Recyclable Thermoplastic Elastomer.

In an effort to synthesize chemically recyclable thermoplastic elastomers, a redox-switchable catalytic system was developed to synthesize triblock copolymers containing stiff poly(lactic acid) (PLA) end blocks and a flexible poly(tetrahydrofuran-co-cyclohexene oxide) (poly(THF-co-CHO) copolymer as the mid-block. The orthogonal reactivity induced by changing the oxidation state of the iron-based catalyst enabled the synthesis of the triblock copolymers in a single reaction flask from a mixture of monomers. The triblock copolymers demonstrated improved flexibility compared to poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA) and thermomechanical properties that resemble thermoplastic elastomers, including a rubbery plateau in the range of -60 to 40 °C. The triblock copolymers containing a higher percentage of THF versus CHO were more flexible, and a blend of triblock copolymers containing PLLA and poly(d-lactic acid) (PDLA) end-blocks resulted in a stereocomplex that further increased polymer flexibility. Besides the low cost of lactide and THF, the sustainability of this new class of triblock copolymers was also supported by their depolymerization, which was achieved by exposing the copolymers sequentially to FeCl3 and ZnCl2 /PEG under reactive distillation conditions.

Redesigned Nylon 6 Variants with Enhanced Recyclability, Ductility, and Transparency.

Geminal (gem-) disubstitution in heterocyclic monomers is an effective strategy to enhance polymer chemical recyclability by lowering their ceiling temperatures. However, the effects of specific substitution patterns on the monomer's reactivity and the resulting polymer's properties are largely unexplored. Here we show that, by systematically installing gem-dimethyl groups onto ϵ-caprolactam (monomer of nylon 6) from the α to ϵ positions, both the redesigned lactam monomer's reactivity and the resulting gem-nylon 6's properties are highly sensitive to the substitution position, with the monomers ranging from non-polymerizable to polymerizable and the gem-nylon properties ranging from inferior to far superior to the parent nylon 6. Remarkably, the nylon 6 with the gem-dimethyls substituted at the γ position is amorphous and optically transparent, with a higher Tg (by 30 °C), yield stress (by 1.5 MPa), ductility (by 3×), and lower depolymerization temperature (by 60 °C) than conventional nylon 6.

Non-isocyanate Synthesis of Covalent Adaptable Networks Based on Dynamic Hindered Urea Bonds: Sequential Polymerization and Chemical Recycling.

The development of environmentally sustainable processes for polymer recycling is of paramount importance in the polymer industry. In particular, the implementation of chemical recycling for thermoset polymers via covalent adaptable networks (CANs), particularly those based on the dynamic hindered urea bond (HUB), has garnered intensive attention from both the academic and industrial sectors. This interest stems from its straightforward chemical structure and reaction mechanism, which are well-suited for commercial polyurethane and polyurea applications. However, a substantial drawback of these CANs is the requisite use of toxic isocyanate curing agents for their synthesis. Herein, we propose a new HUB synthesis pathway involving thiazolidin-2-one and a hindered amine. This ring-opening reaction facilitates the isocyanate-free formation of a HUB and enables sequential reactions with acrylate and epoxide monomers via thiol-Michael and thiol-epoxy click chemistry. The CANs synthesized using this methodology exhibit superior reprocessability, chemical recyclability, and reutilizability, facilitated by specific catalytic and solvent conditions, through the reversible HUB, thiol-Michael addition, and transesterification processes.

Regulating the Thermodynamics and Thermal Properties of Depolymerizable Polycyclooctenes through Substituent Effects.

Chemical recycling to monomer (CRM) is a promising route for transitioning to a circular polymer economy. To develop new CRM systems with useful properties, it is important to understand the effects of monomer structure on polymerization/depolymerization behavior. In earlier work, this group demonstrated chemically recyclable polymers prepared by ring-opening metathesis polymerization of trans-cyclobutane fused cyclooctenes (tCBCO). Here, it is investigated how different substituents on cyclobutane impact the thermodynamics and thermal properties of tCBCO polymers. Introducing additional substituents to a cis-diester functionalized tCBCO is found to favor the conversion of polymerization; increased polymerization conversion is also observed when the cis-diester is isomerized into its trans counterpart. The effects of these structural features on the thermal properties are also studied. These findings can provide important insights into designing next-generation CRM polymers.

Chemically Recyclable Biobased Non-Isocyanate Polyurethane Networks from CO2 -Derived Six-membered Cyclic Carbonates.

Non-isocyanate polyurethanes (NIPUs) are widely studied as sustainability potential, because they can be prepared without using toxic isocyanates in the synthesis process. The aminolysis of cyclic carbonate to form NIPUs is a promising route. In this work, a series of NIPUs is prepared from renewable bis(6-membered cyclic carbonates) (iEbcc) and amines. The resulting NIPUs possess excellent mechanical properties and thermal stability. The NIPUs can be remolded via transcarbamoylation reactions, and iEbcc-TAEA-10 (the molar ratio of tris(2-aminoethyl)amine in amines is 10%) still get a recovery ratio of 90% in tensile stress after three cycles of remolding. In addition, the obtained materials can be chemically degraded into bi(1,3-diol) precursors with high purity (>99%) and yield (>90%) through alcoholysis. Meanwhile, the degraded products can be used to regenerate NIPUs with similar structures and properties as the original samples. The synthetic strategy, isocyanate-free and employing isoeugenol and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) as building blocks, makes this approach an attractive pathway to NIPU networks taking a step toward a circular economy.

Ring-Opening Polymerization of Cyclic Acetals: Strategy for both Recyclable and Degradable Materials.

To cope with the severe plastic waste crisis, massive efforts are made to develop sustainable polymer materials whose degradation involves a disposing and decomposing to small molecule (DDM) and/or a chemical recycling to monomer (CRM) process. Polyacetals, a type of pH-responsive polymers, are degradable under acidic conditions, while highly stable under neutral and basic circumstances. As for their synthesis, the cationic ring-opening polymerization (CROP) of cyclic acetals is an elegant and promising approach, though suffering from fatal side reactions and polymerization-depolymerization equilibrium. Recent development in CRM restimulates the interest in the long-forgotten CROP method due to its inherent depolymerization characteristics. In terms of the end-of-life options, polyacetals are recyclable materials with both DDM and CRM potentials. They not only expand the scope of materials for closed-loop recycling but also help to tune the degradation properties of traditional polyesters and polyolefins. This review aims to discuss the synthesis of various polyacetals by CROP and their degradation properties from the perspectives of 1) polymerization of cyclic acetals, dioxepins, and hemiacetal esters, 2) copolymerization of cyclic acetals with heterocyclic or vinyl monomers, and 3) degradation and recycling properties of the related polymers.

A carbothermic hybrid synthesized using waste halogenated plastic in sub/supercritical CO2 and its application for lithium recovery.

Facile fabrication of porous carbon materials from waste halogenated plastic is highly attractive but frequently hampered due to potential release of halogenated organic pollutants. In this study, a novel type of carbon hybrid was tentatively synthesized from a real-world halogenated plastic as an inexpensive carbon source by sub/supercritical carbon dioxide carbonization technique. It was found that halogen-free carbon carrier was advantageously synthesized through carbonization of halogenated plastic without using catalysts due to zip depolymerization, random chain cracking and free radical reactions induced by sub/supercritical carbon dioxide technique. Exhibiting with more abundant functional groups including C-O, CO groups than pyrolytic carbon carrier, the derived carbon carrier demonstrated excellent performance in selective recovery of lithium from cathode powder with highest recovery efficiency of 93.6%. Mechanism study indicated that cathode powder was transformed into low-valence states of transition metals/metal oxides and released lithium as lithium carbonate due to collapse of oxygen framework via carbothermic reduction. This work provides an applicable and green process for synthesis of alternative carbon carrier from waste halogenated plastic and its application as carbothermic reductant in lithium recovery.

Sustainable Valorization of Bioplastic Waste: A Review on Effective Recycling Routes for the Most Widely Used Biopolymers.

Plastics-based materials have a high carbon footprint, and their disposal is a considerable problem for the environment. Biodegradable bioplastics represent an alternative on which most countries have focused their attention to replace of conventional plastics in various sectors, among which food packaging is the most significant one. The evaluation of the optimal end-of-life process for bioplastic waste is of great importance for their sustainable use. In this review, the advantages and limits of different waste management routes-biodegradation, mechanical recycling and thermal degradation processes-are presented for the most common categories of biopolymers on the market, including starch-based bioplastics, PLA and PBAT. The analysis outlines that starch-based bioplastics, unless blended with other biopolymers, exhibit good biodegradation rates and are suitable for disposal by composting, while PLA and PBAT are incompatible with this process and require alternative strategies. The thermal degradation process is very promising for chemical recycling, enabling building blocks and the recovery of valuable chemicals from bioplastic waste, according to the principles of a sustainable and circular economy. Nevertheless, only a few articles have focused on this recycling process, highlighting the need for research to fully exploit the potentiality of this waste management route.

Comparsion of Catalyst Effectiveness in Different Chemical Depolymerization Methods of Poly(ethylene terephthalate).

This paper presents an overview of the chemical recycling methods of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) described in the scientific literature in recent years. The review focused on methods of chemical recycling of PET including hydrolysis and broadly understood alcoholysis of polymer ester bonds including methanolysis, ethanolysis, glycolysis and reactions with higher alcohols. The depolymerization methods used in the literature are described, with particular emphasis on the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts and ionic liquids, as well as auxiliary substances such as solvents and cosolvents. Important process parameters such as temperature, reaction time, and pressure are compared. Detailed experimental results are presented focusing on reaction yields to allow for easy comparison of applied catalysts and for determination of the most favorable reaction conditions and methods.

Chemical Recycling of Polymethacrylates Synthesized by RAFT Polymerization.

Reversing controlled radical polymerization and regenerating the monomer has been a long-standing challenge for fundamental research and practical applications. Herein, we report a highly efficient depolymerization method for various polymethacrylates synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The depolymerization process, which does not require any catalyst, exhibits near-quantitative conversions of up to 92%. The key aspect of our approach is the utilization of the high end-group fidelity of RAFT polymers to generate chain-end radicals at 120 °C. These radicals trigger a rapid unzipping of the polymethacrylates. The depolymerization product can be utilized to either reconstruct the linear polymer or create an entirely new insoluble gel that can also be subjected to depolymerization. Our depolymerization strategy offers a promising route towards the development of sustainable and efficient recycling methods for complex polymer materials.