Impacts of preparation technologies on biological activities of edible mushroom polysaccharides - novel insights for personalized nutrition achievement.

Edible mushroom polysaccharides (EMPs) as a natural macromolecular carbohydrate have a very complex structure and composition. EMPs are considered ideal candidates for developing healthy products and functional foods and have received significant research attention due to their unique physiological activities such as immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor/cancer, gut microbiota regulation, metabolism improvement, and nervous system protection. The structure and monosaccharide composition of edible mushroom polysaccharides have an unknown relationship with their functional activity, which has not been widely studied. Therefore, we summarized the preparation techniques of EMPs and discussed the association between functional activity, preparation methods, structure and composition of EMPs, laying a theoretical foundation for the personalized nutritional achievements of EMP. We also establish the foundation for the further investigation and application of EMPs as novel functional foods and healthy products.

Unveiling tribal treasures: myco-chemical characterization and pharmacological evaluation of an unexplored Russula pers. species.

During extensive field explorations of the Lateritic area in West Bengal, one remarkable wild Russuloid macrofungus, ethnically termed "Kend Patra," was collected. The species was known to enrich the diet of the local people, being considered as income source for some tribal groups. Using morphological characters and molecular analysis of this collection, provide a unique placement of the taxon in the Russula subgenus Compactae (Fr.) Bon. Further in order to find functional constituents for biopharma applications, methanolic extract was prepared that shows the existence of a substantial amounts of phenol, flavonoid, ascorbic acid and carotenoids. Antioxidant activity was determined where the fraction demonstrated strong DPPH, ABTS, and nitric oxide radical scavenging activities, high Fe2+ ion chelating ability, and a reducing power with EC50 values ranging from 538.69 to 891.75 µg/ml. The extract was found to be effective against Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi and Staphylococcus aureus. In addition, the extract exhibited potent anticancer activities as it inhibited A549 cell proliferation, caused morphological changes, elevated ROS levels, hindered the clonogenic ability and migratory potential of cancerous cells, arrested cell cycle progression at S phase, and induced apoptosis by modulating the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway. Overall, this study contributes a new species to the world's myco-diversity and presents an exciting opportunity for future researchers to conduct comprehensive investigations on this unique species in order to uncover potential new medications for human use.

Linking the protease activity to the nematicidal action of edible mushroom.

Biological control using edible mushrooms as natural enemies is a sustainable alternative for pest management. Despite the well-established literature on toxins and secondary metabolites produced by these fungi in the biochemical control of nematodes, the nematicidal activity of proteases from different Pleurotus species is yet to be investigated. Therefore, this study aimed to correlate protease to the nematicidal activity of different mushrooms, Pleurotus sp., P. ostreatus (SB), P. ostreatus (Pearl), and P. djamor. For such a purpose, we performed motility assays of Panagrellus sp. at different time intervals, 6, 12, and 24 h for each of the mushrooms. In addition, the protease activity was measured using different pH (5, 7, and 9) and fermentation time intervals (45 and 75 days). Furthermore, we also evaluated the effect of this cell-free extract on Panagrellus sp. In response to these experiments, all edible mushrooms showed a reduction over 82% for the nematode-feeding activity (p < 0.01). The cell-free crude extract of each of the fungi studied showed nematocidal activity (p < 0.01). For the 45-day fermentation, P. djamor exhibited statistical significance (p < 0.01) compared with the others, reaching a reduction percentage of 73%. For the 75-day fermentation, Pleurotus sp. and P. ostreatus (Pearl) showed significant differences compared with the other fungi (p < 0.01), with reduction percentages of 64 and 62%, respectively. Herein, protease activity was associated with the nematicidal action of different Pleurotus species in controlling Panagrellus sp.

Strategies for producing probiotic biomass and postbiotics from Akkermansia muciniphila in submerged cultivations incorporating prebiotic sources.

This research propounds an innovative technology focused on sustainability to increase the biomass yield of Akkermansia muciniphila, the next-generation probiotic, using prebiotic sources to replace or reduce animal mucin levels. A series of experimental design approaches were developed aiming to optimize the growth of Akkermansiamuciniphila by incorporating extracts of green leafy vegetables and edible mushroom into the cultivation media. Experiments using kale extract (KE), Brassica oleracea L., associated with lyophilized mushroom extract (LME) of Pleurotus ostreatus were the most promising, highlighting the assays with 0.376% KE and 0.423% LME or 1.05% KE and 0.5% LME, in which 3.5 × 1010 CFU (Colony Forming Units) mL- 1 was achieved - higher than in experiments in optimized synthetic media. Such results enhance the potential of using KE and LME not only as mucin substitutes, but also as a source to increase Akkermansia muciniphila biomass yields and release short-chain fatty acids. The work is relevant to the food and pharmaceutical industries in the preparation of the probiotic ingredient.

A systematic review on drivers influencing consumption of edible mushrooms and innovative mushroom-containing products.

Edible mushrooms are attractive for their low calorie content, high-quality protein, low lipid levels, and therapeutic properties; furthermore, mushroom-containing products are gaining interest in light of the world's increasing need for protein source diversification to meet the global protein demand. At present, there is a strong heterogeneity worldwide in terms of mushroom consumption and, to date, few surveys exist on the factors influencing this. This review, through the PICo and PRISMA statements, identified and analysed 31 papers to answer the question: What are the determinants that drive consumers towards the consumption and purchase of edible mushrooms and novel products containing mushrooms? The expected outcome is to provide an overview of key research issues used thus far, identify current research gaps, and discuss implications for industries and policy-makers. Consumer attitude - including fear of poisoning - towards innovative mushroom-containing products has been poorly analysed in Europe and USA; what we do know is that processed mushrooms appeared more attractive to European and American mainlanders. Few studies have considered the ethnicity of participants, which is an important factor since mushrooms and their culinary applications appear to be known mainly thanks to family tradition. New strategies are needed to increase people's familiarity with these products and to contrast neophobic phenomena. If mushroom price is an obstacle for both companies and purchasers, intrinsic characteristics such as umami taste and positive health and sustainability benefits are strengths to consider in the development of the supply chain, public education, and information initiatives. This should be useful in directing consumer preferences towards meat alternatives containing mushrooms.

First report of cobweb disease in Auricularia cornea caused by Hypomyces mycophilus in Guizhou, China.

Auricularia cornea is a widely cultivated mushroom in China, which has high medicinal values such as hemostaticity, analgesia, antioxidation and anti-tumor (Wu et al., 2019). In 2022, an investigation on edible mushroom diseases in Guizhou Province observed a suspected cobweb disease in an A. cornea growing factory, with up to 30% incidence. The pathogen first produced flocculent hyphae on the surface of the fruiting body of A. cornea, and then developed spider web-like aerial hyphae, covering the entire fruiting bodies. It hinders the normal growth of A. cornea, resulting in deformity and rot of the fruiting bodies. These symptoms seriously affect the quantity and quality of mushroom yields and cause huge economic losses. Three fungal isolates (GUCCX001, GUCCX002 and GUCCX003) were recovered from the diseased mushroom fruiting bodies and purified through single spore isolation. The colonies of three isolates spread rapidly on PDA, reaching 79-82 mm in seven days. The flocculent mycelium was whitish, and its reverse turned from yellowish to amber after 14 days. The branched conidiophores arising from aerial mycelia were septate and each cell contained several denticulate conidiogenous loci. Each denticle contained a single conidium. Conidia were observed at the tip of conidiophore branches and were 0-1-septate, oval or spherical, transparent, 5.2-11.3 × 11.7-18.7 µm (n = 35). Chlamydospores were visible as 3-4 thick-walled cells at the tip of lateral hyphal branches. Three isolates were tentatively identified as H. mycophilus based on their morphological characteristics similar to those described by Rogerson and Samuels (1993). The sequence of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region (primers ITS5/ITS4) (Rehner and Samuels, 1994) and nuclear ribosomal large subunit (LSU) region (primers LR0R/LR5) (Vilgalys and Heste, 1990) of GUCCX001 (ITS: OP777905; LSU: OQ152071), GUCCX002 (ITS: OP862872; LSU: OQ152072) and GUCCX003 (ITS: OP862873; LSU: OP862873) were 99%-100% similar to H. mycophilus CBS 175.56 (ITS: MH857567; LSU: MH869110). Fifteen healthy fruiting bodies of A. cornea were inoculated by spraying spore suspension (106 conidia/mL) of the three isolates and five healthy fruiting bodies were sprayed with sterile water as control. All inoculated fruiting bodies were kept at 25 ℃. After three days, fruiting bodies of A. cornea treated with the spore suspension exhibited the same symptoms of cobweb as in the factory, while no symptom appeared in the control. Pathogens re-isolated from diseased fruiting bodies were confirmed to be H. mycophilus based on morphological characteristics, which fulfills the Koch's postulate. Zeng et al. (2017) reported H. mycophilus on the fruiting bodies of Auricularia sp. as a new record in Guangdong, China. H. mycophilus caused cobweb disease on A. auricula (Liu et al., 2020), A. cornea var. Li. (Cao et al., 2023) and A. heimuer (Zhang et al., 2023). To our knowledge, this is the first report of cobweb disease in A. cornea caused by H. mycophilus in Guizhou, China. Our findings will provide a basis for correct diagnosis and management of cobweb diseases on A. cornea.

Exploring Edible Mushrooms for Diabetes: Unveiling Their Role in Prevention and Treatment.

Diabetes mellitus is a complex illness in which the body does not create enough insulin to control blood glucose levels. Worldwide, this disease is life-threatening and requires low-cost, side-effect-free medicine. Due to adverse effects, many synthetic hypoglycemic medications for diabetes fail. Mushrooms are known to contain natural bioactive components that may be anti-diabetic; thus, scientists are now targeting them. Mushroom extracts, which improve immune function and fight cancer, are becoming more popular. Mushroom-derived functional foods and dietary supplements can delay the onset of potentially fatal diseases and help treat pre-existing conditions, which leads to the successful prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes, which is restricted to the breakdown of complex polysaccharides by pancreatic-amylase and the suppression of intestinal-glucosidase. Many mushroom species are particularly helpful in lowering blood glucose levels and alleviating diabetes symptoms. Hypoglycaemic effects have been observed in investigations on Agaricussu brufescens, Agaricus bisporus, Cordyceps sinensis, Inonotus obliqus, Coprinus comatus, Ganoderma lucidum, Phellinus linteus, Pleurotus spp., Poria cocos, and Sparassis crispa. For diabetics, edible mushrooms are high in protein, vitamins, and minerals and low in fat and cholesterol. The study found that bioactive metabolites isolated from mushrooms, such as polysaccharides, proteins, dietary fibers, and many pharmacologically active compounds, as well as solvent extracts of mushrooms with unknown metabolites, have anti-diabetic potential in vivo and in vitro, though few are in clinical trials.

Golden Chanterelle or a Gold Mine? Metabolites from Aqueous Extracts of Golden Chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius) and Their Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities.

Cantharellus cibarius, the golden chanterelle, is the second most-collected wild edible mushroom in Europe and very frequently harvested in Croatia. Wild mushrooms have been considered a healthy food since ancient times and are today highly valued for their beneficial nutritional as well as medicinal properties. Since golden chanterelle is added to different food products to improve their nutritive value, we studied the chemical profile of aqueous extracts of golden chanterelle (at 25 °C and 70 °C) and their antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. Malic acid, pyrogallol and oleic acid were some of the main compounds identified by GC-MS from derivatized extract. p-Hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid and gallic acid were the most abundant phenolics quantitatively determined by HPLC, with somewhat higher amounts for samples extracted at 70 °C. Antioxidant activity was determined by ferric reducing antioxidant power assay and oxygen radical absorption method, and the highest results were recorded for golden chanterelle extracted at 70 °C, being 41.54 ± 1.54 and 38.72 ± 2.47 µM TE/L, respectively. Aqueous extract at 25 °C showed the better response against human breast adenocarcinoma MDA-MB-231 (IC50 = 375µg/mL). Our results confirm the beneficial effect of golden chanterelle even under aqueous extraction conditions and highlight its significance as a dietary supplement and in the development of new beverage products.

Antioxidant Properties, Bioactive Compounds Contents, and Chemical Characterization of Two Wild Edible Mushroom Species from Morocco: Paralepista flaccida (Sowerby) Vizzini and Lepista nuda (Bull.) Cooke.

Mushrooms have been consumed for centuries and have recently gained more popularity as an important source of nutritional and pharmaceutical compounds. As part of the valorization of mushroom species in northern Morocco, the current study aimed to investigate the chemical compositions and antioxidant properties of two wild edible mushrooms, Paralepista flaccida and Lepista nuda. Herein, the bioactive compounds were determined using spectrophotometer methods, and results showed that the value of total phenolic content (TPC) was found to be higher in P. flaccida (32.86 ± 0.52 mg) than in L. nuda (25.52 ± 0.56 mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAEs)/mg of dry methanolic extract (dme)). On the other hand, the value of total flavonoid content (TFC) was greater in L. nuda than in P. flaccida, with values of 19.02 ± 0.80 and 10.34 ± 0.60 mg of (+)-catechin equivalents (CEs)/g dme, respectively. Moreover, the ascorbic acid, tannin, and carotenoids content was moderate, with a non-significant difference between the two samples. High-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analysis allowed the identification and quantification of thirteen individual phenolic compounds in both P. flaccida and L. nuda, whereas p-Hydroxybenzoic acid was recognized as the major compound detected, with values of 138.50 ± 1.58 and 587.90 ± 4.89 µg/g of dry weight (dw), respectively. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of methanolic extracts of P. flaccida and L. nuda revealed the presence of sixty-one and sixty-six biomolecules, respectively. These biomolecules can mainly be divided into four main groups, namely sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and organic acids. Moreover, glycerol (12.42%) and mannitol (10.39%) were observed to be the main chemical compositions of P. flaccida, while L. nuda was predominated by linolelaidic acid (21.13%) and leucine (9.05%). L. nuda showed a strong antioxidant property, evaluated by DPPH (half maximal effective concentration (EC50) 1.18-0.98 mg/mL); ß-carotene bleaching (EC50 0.22-0.39 mg/mL); and reducing power methods (EC50 0.63-0.48 mg/mL), respectively. These findings suggested that both mushrooms are potential sources of various biomolecules, many of which possess important biological activities which are interesting for the foods and pharmaceuticals industry.

Hericium erinaceus ethanol extract and ergosterol exert anti-inflammatory activities by neutralizing lipopolysaccharide-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine production in human monocytes.

Edible mushrooms are known to exert anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, the effects of ethanol extracts from edible mushrooms, such as Hericium erinaceus, and other edible mushrooms on inflammatory responses were investigated. Experiments were conducted using the inflammatory responses of human monocytes induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a bacterial component, that provokes inflammation. Notably, we demonstrated that LPS mixed with ethanol and hot water extracts derived from edible mushrooms attenuated the production of inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1ß, -6, and -8, induced by LPS in human monocytic cell cultures. Moreover, we found that the ethanol extract of H. erinaceus contained ergosterol, which attenuated IL-8 production in LPS-stimulated cells. Subsequent component analysis of the ethanol extract of H. erinaceus revealed that ergosterol binds to lipid A to attenuate LPS-induced inflammation. Together, our findings suggest that ergosterol in ethanol extracts from edible mushrooms can prevent the induction of inflammation by binding to LPS.

Health benefits of edible mushroom polysaccharides and associated gut microbiota regulation.

Edible mushrooms have been an important part of the human diet for thousands of years, and over 100 varieties have been cultivated for their potential human health benefits. In recent years, edible mushroom polysaccharides (EMPs) have been studied for their activities against obesity, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and cancer. Particularly, accumulating evidence on the exact causality between these health risks and specific gut microbiota species has been revealed and characterized, and most of the beneficial health effects of EMPs have been associated with its reversal impacts on gut microbiota dysbiosis. This demonstrates the key role of EMPs in decreasing health risks through gut microbiota modulation effects. This review article compiles and summarizes the latest studies that focus on the health benefits and underlying functional mechanisms of gut microbiota regulation via EMPs. We conclude that EMPs can be considered a dietary source for the improvement and prevention of several health risks, and this review provides the theoretical basis and technical guidance for the development of novel functional foods with the utilization of edible mushrooms.

Live Cell Imaging With Biocompatible Fluorescent Carbon Quantum Dots Derived From Edible Mushrooms Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Suillus luteus.

In the study, fluorescent imaging of live cells was performed using fluorescent carbon quantum dots derived from edible mushrooms species; Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Suillus luteus as a fluorophore agent. Carbon quantum dots were synthesized through a facile and low-cost method based on microwave irradiation of dried mushroom samples in hydrogen peroxide solution under optimized conditions (microwave energy, solution type, duration of microwave treatment, amount of mushroom). Upon purification with centrifugation, microfiltration, and dialysis, the lyophilized carbon quantum dots were identified through UV-visible, fluorescence and FT-IR, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, and quantum yield calculation. Cell viability assessment of the carbon quantum dots was evaluated against human epithelial cell line PNT1A using the Alamar Blue Assay. In vitro fluorescence cell imaging studies demonstrated that the carbon dots could dynamically penetrate the cell membrane and nuclear membrane and localize in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

Four mycelial strains of Entoloma clypeatum species complex form ectomycorrhiza-like roots with Pyrus betulifolia seedlings in vitro, and one develops fruiting bodies 2 months after inoculation.

Entoloma clypeatum species complex (ECSC) forms ectomycorrhiza-like roots (EMLR) with host plant species of Rosaceae or Ulmaceae. The EMLR colonized with ECSC are characterized by a thick fungal mantle, absence of a Hartig net structure, and collapse of the apical meristem caused by hyphal invasion. Some researchers have suggested parasitism of ECSC because of this unique mode of colonization; however, the nature of the interaction between ECSC and host plants has not been investigated in co-culture because of the difficulty of culturing this group of fungi. We established a procedure to synthesize EMLR of ECSC on pear seedlings using fungal cultures. Three conspecific strains of ECSC isolated from basidiospores and one strain isolated from EMLR were tested. Cultured mycelia were inoculated onto a modified Norkrans' C (MNC) or Hyponex-yeast-glucose (HYG) medium slant on the bottom of a polycarbonate jar and covered with autoclaved andosol or a vermiculite/sphagnum moss mixture (VSM); an axenically cultivated Pyrus betulifolia seedling was then planted in the jar. Five months after inoculation, the formation of EMLR with Hartig net-like hyphae was confirmed in all of the experimental plots. However, the rate of root colonization was significantly higher in experimental plots using andosol than in those using VSM. The growth of pear seedlings was similar irrespective of the level of root colonization, suggesting commensalism rather than parasitism of ECSC. One experimental plot using strain A3, an MNC slant, and andosol as a substrate produced ECSC fruiting bodies with mature basidia and basidiospores. The results suggested that our procedure enables the synthesis of EMLR of ECSC and cultivation of their fruiting bodies.

First Report of Cobweb Disease in Oudemansiella raphanipes Caused by Cladobotryum varium in Beijing, China.

Oudemansiella raphanipes is an edible mushroom with medicinal properties,which has been recently cultivated throughout China (Hao et al. 2016). In October 2019, a disease with symptoms similar to that of cobweb disease (Carrasco et al. 2017) was observed in O. raphanipes in the Tongzhou District, Beijing, China, infecting 25% of the fruiting bodies (Fig. 1A, B). White cotton-like net of hyphae were present typically on the casing soil or on the stipe of the fruiting bodies; they gradually spread to the pileus, covering the fruiting body, which eventually wilted and died (Fig. 1C, D), resulting in yield reduction and economic loss. Cultures were obtained by aseptically transferring the diseased fruiting bodies onto potato dextrose agar (PDA) at 25 °C; they were deposited in the culture collection (ID: JZBQA1) of the Beijing Academy of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, China. The colonies were pale white/white, with an occasional formation of yellow diffusing pigments on the reverse side (Fig. 1E-G). Conidiophores were Cladobotryum-like, phialides were solitary or commonly divergent in whorls of 2-3 (-4), lageniform to subulate, 20-63.5 (-66) × (3.8-) 4-5.3 (-9) µm (n = 40) (Fig. 1H, I); conidia were hyaline, oval to ellipsoidal, with one or two septa, (10.4-) 11.4-20 (-22) × 6.6-9.5 (-10) µm (n = 40) (Fig. 1J); chlamydospores were globose or ellipsoidal (Fig. 1K). The morphological characteristics were consistent with that of Cladobotryum varium (Back et al. 2012a, b; Sun et al. 2019). For species-level fungal identification, genomic DNA was extracted using the DNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen, USA). The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions, translation elongation factor 1 alpha exon (TEF1-α), RNA polymerase II subunit b (RPB2), and RNA polymerase I largest subunit (RPB1) genes were amplified using the primer pairs ITS1/ITS4 (White et al. 1990), EF1-983F/2218R (Rehner and Buckley 2005), RPB2-5F/7cR (Liu et al. 1999), and RPB1F1 (5'-GCCGATGAAGTTGGTCTA-3')/RPB1R1 (5'-TATGTTGCGGTGAGCCTT-3'), respectively. A BLAST nucleotide search showed 99.34% (449/452 bp), 99.24% (914/921 bp), 98.08% (1,022/1,042 bp), and 99.66% (588/590 bp) homology, respectively, with those of the ex-type culture of Hypomyces aurantius TFC 95-171 (FN859425.1, FN868743.1, FN868679.1, and FN868805.1). The four sequences were deposited in GenBank (accession numbers: MW534093, MW560066, MW560064, and MW560065). Phylogenetic trees based on the assessed gene loci revealed that the JZBQA1 strain was closely related to C. varium (Fig. 2). A in vivo pathogenicity test was performed using the fruiting bodies (Fig. 1L, O). Spore suspension (108 spores/mL) of the JZBQA1 strain or sterile distilled water was sprayed on six healthy fruiting bodies, maintained in an artificial climate chamber at 24-26°C. Cobweb-like features were observed on the fruiting bodies treated with the spore suspension 2-3 days post-inoculation; while those treated with water did not exhibit such features (Fig. 1L, O). The same pathogen was re-isolated and confirmed from the infected fruiting bodies by integrated analysis of morphological characteristics and gene sequencing data. Cladobotryum spp. infects different varieties of cultivated edible mushrooms, resulting in the development of cobweb diseases (Cao et al. 2020; Carrasco et al. 2017). Cladobotryum varium is the causal agent of cobweb disease in Flammulina velutipes and Hypsizygus marmoreus (Back et al. 2012a, b). To our knowledge, this is the first report of cobweb disease caused by C. varium in O. raphanipes. This finding is a valuable contribution to the knowledge of cobweb disease development in edible fungi.

Genome-wide analysis and prediction of genes involved in the biosynthesis of polysaccharides and bioactive secondary metabolites in high-temperature-tolerant wild Flammulina filiformis.

BACKGROUND: Flammulina filiformis (previously known as Asian F. velutipes) is a popular commercial edible mushroom. Many bioactive compounds with medicinal effects, such as polysaccharides and sesquiterpenoids, have been isolated and identified from F. filiformis, but their biosynthesis and regulation at the molecular level remains unclear. In this study, we sequenced the genome of the wild strain F. filiformis Liu355, predicted its biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) and profiled the expression of these genes in wild and cultivar strains and in different developmental stages of the wild F. filiformis strain by a comparative transcriptomic analysis. RESULTS: We found that the genome of the F. filiformis was 35.01 Mb in length and harbored 10,396 gene models. Thirteen putative terpenoid gene clusters were predicted and 12 sesquiterpene synthase genes belonging to four different groups and two type I polyketide synthase gene clusters were identified in the F. filiformis genome. The number of genes related to terpenoid biosynthesis was higher in the wild strain (119 genes) than in the cultivar strain (81 genes). Most terpenoid biosynthesis genes were upregulated in the primordium and fruiting body of the wild strain, while the polyketide synthase genes were generally upregulated in the mycelium of the wild strain. Moreover, genes encoding UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase and UDP-glucose dehydrogenase, which are involved in polysaccharide biosynthesis, had relatively high transcript levels both in the mycelium and fruiting body of the wild F. filiformis strain. CONCLUSIONS: F. filiformis is enriched in a number of gene clusters involved in the biosynthesis of polysaccharides and terpenoid bioactive compounds and these genes usually display differential expression between wild and cultivar strains, even in different developmental stages. This study expands our knowledge of the biology of F. filiformis and provides valuable data for elucidating the regulation of secondary metabolites in this unique F. filiformis strain.

Molecular strategies for identification and characterization of some wild edible mushrooms of Nagaland, India.

Nagaland has a rich macro fungal flora but not many works has been carried out till today. Present investigation deals with molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of six popular wild edible mushrooms (WEMs) species of Nagaland, India viz., Lentinula edodes, Lentinus squarrosulus, L. sajor-caju, L. tigrinus, Schizophyllum commune, Termitomyces heimii and one variety of L. squarrosulus based on molecular markers (ITS, 18S rRNA and 28S rRNA genes) data. The use of DNA markers for identification of mushrooms is highly desirable and practical because it is reliable and quick. This approach could resolve successfully the identity and interrelationship of six WEM species with respect to their infrageneric groups. The high CI values of the mushrooms species indicated the low homoplasy nature. The ITS and 28S rRNA data sets were found to be more informative then the 18S rRNA datasets. The molecular data generated for each mushroom species in the present investigation will help in correct identification and conservation of these widely consumed WEM of the region. Additionally assessment of bioactive molecules indicates that studied species are rich in pro-health bioactive compounds. The study hence throws light on the potential and importance of mushrooms especially the edible mushrooms as an economically valuable crop.

Speciation analysis of mercury in wild edible mushrooms by high-performance liquid chromatography hyphenated to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.

Wild edible mushrooms can accumulate significantly elevated levels of mercury from the surrounding environment, which could be harmful to consumers' health. Speciation analysis of mercury in wild edible mushrooms aids in understanding the human exposure to these toxic compounds. In this study, we developed a high-performance liquid chromatography hyphenated to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICP-MS) method for the simultaneous determination of inorganic mercury (Hg(II)), methylmercury (MeHg), ethylmercury (EtHg), and phenylmercury (PhHg) in wild edible mushrooms. A rapid separation of four target mercury species was achieved within 11 min by a C8 column without utilizing high proportion of organic phase in HPLC. The parameters affecting the extraction efficiency of mercury in samples have been investigated. The proposed method showed good linearity within 0-50 µg/L with the detection and quantification limits of 0.6-4.5 µg/kg (S/N = 3), and 2.0-15 µg/kg (S/N = 10), respectively. This proposed method was successfully applied to the mercury speciation analysis in 7 varieties (95 samples) of wild edible mushrooms. The results indicated that in most mushroom samples, mercury mainly occurred as inorganic mercury. But there were two Tricholoma matsutakes, one contained 0.14 mg/kg of methylmercury, another contained 1.05 mg/kg of phenylmercury, which were higher than the maximum allowable content of total mercury in edible mushrooms in China. Graphical abstract.

Accumulation Pattern of Inorganic Elements in Scaly Tooth Mushroom (Sarcodon imbricatus) from Northern Poland.

Several studies have documented contamination levels and daily intake of metallic elements from foodstuffs including rice, maize, pulses, vegetables, fruits, fish, meat, egg, milk etc., however, limited literature is available on metal contamination levels in wild growing mushrooms and possible human exposure via consumption of it. Sarcodon imbricatus is an edible mushroom, commonly consumed in many parts of the world. Very few studies have been conducted on inorganic elemental composition in fruiting bodies (edible part) of this fungus. In this study, elements such as silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), barium (Ba), calcium (Ca), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co,) chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), mercury (Hg), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), sodium (Na), nickel (Ni), phosphorous (P), lead (Pb), rubidium (Rb), strontium (Sr) and zinc (Zn) were measured in caps and stems of fruiting bodies of S. imbricatus collected from the Wdzydze forests in Central and the Augustowska Primeval forest in Eastern Poland. Results revealed that a wide variation in concentrations of various metals in caps and stems samples collected from the two forests. Toxic metallic elements such as Cd and Hg showed preferential accumulation in caps than stems samples from both the forests. However, the concentrations of Cd, Hg and Pb in the mushroom samples were below the established weekly intake tolerance limits.

Discovery of Antifungal and Biofilm Preventative Compounds from Mycelial Cultures of a Unique North American Hericium sp. Fungus.

Edible mushrooms are an important source of nutraceuticals and for the discovery of bioactive metabolites as pharmaceuticals. In this work, the OSMAC (One Strain, Many Active Compounds) approach was used to isolate two new compounds (1 and 2) along with seven known compounds (3-9) from a mycelial culture of a unique North American edible mushroom Hericium sp. The fruiting body was collected in Marine on St. Croix, Minnesota (USA), and mycelial cultures were grown on four different solid and liquid media. Extracts from the mycelial cultures were screened for antimicrobial activity and only the extract from the Cheerios substrate culture exhibited antifungal activity. Bioassay guided fractionation and HPLC analysis were used to isolate nine pure compounds and the structures of the known compounds were established by analysis of the NMR and mass spectrometry data and comparison to published reports. Compound 1 is a new erinacerin alkaloid and 2 is an aldehyde derivative of 4-hydroxy chroman. Four chlorinated orcinol derivatives (3-6), a pyran (7), erinaceolactone (8), and erinacine (9) were identified. Compound 4 showed antifungal activity against C. albicans and C. neoformans (MIC = 31.3-62.5 µg/mL, respectively). Compound 4 also inhibited biofilm formation of C. albicans and C. neoformans at 7.8 µg/mL. These results suggest that mycelial cultures of edible fungi may provide useful, bioactive compounds.

Effects of Rich in Β-Glucans Edible Mushrooms on Aging Gut Microbiota Characteristics: An In Vitro Study.

Alterations of gut microbiota are evident during the aging process. Prebiotics may restore the gut microbial balance, with ß-glucans emerging as prebiotic candidates. This study aimed to investigate the impact of edible mushrooms rich in ß-glucans on the gut microbiota composition and metabolites by using in vitro static batch culture fermentations and fecal inocula from elderly donors (n = 8). Pleurotus ostreatus, P. eryngii, Hericium erinaceus and Cyclocybe cylindracea mushrooms derived from various substrates were examined. Gut microbiota composition (quantitative PCR (qPCR)) and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs; gas chromatography (GC)) were determined during the 24-h fermentation. P. eryngii induced a strong lactogenic effect, while P. ostreatus and C. cylindracea induced a significant bifidogenic effect (p for all <0.05). Furthermore, P. eryngii produced on wheat straw and the prebiotic inulin had comparable Prebiotic Indexes, while P. eryngii produced on wheat straw/grape marc significantly increased the levels of tested butyrate producers. P. ostreatus, P. eryngii and C. cylindracea had similar trends in SCFA profile; H. erinaceus mushrooms were more diverse, especially in the production of propionate, butyrate and branched SCFAs. In conclusion, mushrooms rich in ß-glucans may exert beneficial in vitro effects in gut microbiota and/or SCFAs production in elderly subjects.