[The forensic medical identification of the members of the Demidov family].

The objective of the present study was to elucidate the genetic profiles of the biological materials taken from four graves in the Demidov family vault in order to establish kinship between its members. According to the archival documents, two graves contained the remains of Pyotr Grigor'evich Demidov, an adjutant-general for the emperor Aleksandr II, and his wife Elizaveta Nikolaevna Demidova (Bezobrazova). Also, it was supposed that two other graves contained the remains of Grigory Petrovich Demidov and Ekaterina Petrovna Demidova (married name princess Kudasheva), the son and the daughter of P.G. Demidov and E.N. Demidova. The bodies remained in the half-ruined crypt during approximately 150 years under conditions of enhanced humidity and seasonal temperature fluctuations which made their bone tissue virtually unsuitable for the genetic analysis. Genotyping was performed with the use of standard AmpF/STR Identifiler-TM and AmpF/STR Yfiler-TM kits ("Applied Biosystems", USA). As a result of the study, the skeletal remains of the boy from grave No2 were identified as actually belonging to the son of P.G. Demidov and E.N. Demidova with a probability of no less than 99.999999998%. whereas the girl buried in grave No4, was not the daughter of these parents.

Identification of the remains of the Romanov family by DNA analysis.

Nine skeletons found in a shallow grave in Ekaterinburg, Russia, in July 1991, were tentatively identified by Russian forensic authorities as the remains of the last Tsar, Tsarina, three of their five children, the Royal Physician and three servants. We have performed DNA based sex testing and short tandem repeat (STR) analysis and confirm that a family group was present in the grave. Analysis of mitochondrial (mt) DNA reveals an exact sequence match between the putative Tsarina and the three children with a living maternal relative. Amplified mtDNA extracted from the remains of the putative Tsar has been cloned to demonstrate heteroplasmy at a single base within the mtDNA control region. One of these sequences matches two living maternal relatives of the Tsar. We conclude that the DNA evidence supports the hypothesis that the remains are those of the Romanov family.

Bodies of science and law: forensic DNA profiling, biological bodies, and biopower.

How is jurisdiction transferred from an individual's biological body to agents of power such as the police, public prosecutors, and the judiciary, and what happens to these biological bodies when transformed from private into public objects? These questions are examined by analysing bodies situated at the intersection of science and law. More specifically, the transformation of 'private bodies' into 'public bodies' is analysed by going into the details of forensic DNA profiling in the Dutch jurisdiction. It will be argued that various 'forensic genetic practices' enact different forensic genetic bodies'. These enacted forensic genetic bodies are connected with various infringements of civil rights, which become articulated in exploring these forensic genetic bodies''normative registers'.

[Genetic genealogy: history and methodology].

The review surveys the development and the current state of genetic genealogy, a branch of science dealing with the history of individuals, families, and kins using molecular genetic methods. The main milestones in the development of genetic genealogy are established: the appearance of essential prerequisites (development of DNA genotyping and forensic techniques of evaluating biological kinship); the first publications on the topic in the late 1990s; the establishment of commercial companies, periodicals, and noncommercial organizations dealing with this subject. The theory and practical applications of dating individuals back to the most recent common ancestors on the basis of Y-chromosomal amd mitochondrial DNA data are briefly considered.

DNA reviews: the national DNA database of the United Kingdom.

The national DNA database in United Kingdom has now been operational for over 10 years. This review looks at the history and development of this investigative resource. From the development of commercial DNA profiling kits to the current statistics for matches obtained in relation to criminal investigation in the United Kingdom, before moving onto discussing potential future direction that national DNA databases might take, including international collaboration on a European and global scale.

[The O. J. Simpson case. Guilty or innocent?]. / Sprawa O. J. Simpsona. Winny?

On October 3, 1995, one hundred million of Americans gathered at their TV sets to learn the verdict in the ex-football player O. J. Simpson case. The verdict was the consequence of a skilful defense and numerous mistakes made by prosecution. Despite copious evidence, including DNA test results indicating the guilt of thedefendant, the jury decided that O. J. Simpson was not guilty. The aim of this paper is to present the unique character of this trial and defense strategy used by a group of six attorneys, who worked on that case.

DNA fingerprinting on trial: the dramatic early history of a new forensic technique.

The early history of "DNA fingerprinting" in the UK might have been different were it not for the accounts of two dramatic courtroom trials, made by the participants and the media, in the mid-1980s. But these reports, which misrepresented the importance DNA evidence had in the trials, left a strong impression on the British public and on judges on both sides of the Atlantic. These trials, widely considered to be the first "victories" for DNA fingerprinting, have been frequently cited as proof of the utility and reliability of the technique, in both the UK and beyond. But in reality, it was the threat of DNA evidence being used rather than the integrity or validity of it that resolved these cases. At that time, DNA fingerprinting was still in its infancy, an untried and untested technology.

A brief history of the formation of DNA databases in forensic science within Europe.

The introduction of DNA analysis to forensic science brought with it a number of choices for analysis, not all of which were compatible. As laboratories throughout Europe were eager to use the new technology different systems became routine in different laboratories and consequently, there was no basis for the exchange of results. A period of co-operation then started in which a nucleus of forensic scientists agreed on an uniform system. This collaboration spread to incorporate most of the established forensic science laboratories in Europe and continued through two major changes in the technology. At each step agreement was reached on which systems to use. From the beginning it was realised that DNA databases would provide the criminal justice systems with an efficient way of crime solving and consequently some local databases were created. It was not until the introduction of the amplification technology linked to the analysis of short tandem repeats that a sufficiently sensitive and robust system was available for the formation of efficient and effective DNA databases. Comprehensive legislation enacted in the UK in 1995 enabled forensic scientists to set up the first national DNA database which would hold both personal DNA profiles together with results obtained from crime scenes. Other countries quickly followed but in some the legislation has severely restricted the amount and type of data which can be retained and, therefore, effectiveness of the databases is limited. The widespread use of commercially produced multiplex kits has produced a situation in which nearly all European laboratories are using compatible systems and there is, therefore, the potential for the introduction of a pan-European DNA database. However, the exchange of results between countries is hampered by the various legislations which currently exist.

[The proof of paternity. An andrological-forensic challenge in historical perspective]. / Der Vaterschaftsnachweis. Eine andrologisch-rechtsmedizinische Herausforderung im Spiegel vergangener Zeiten.

For centuries, difficulties have occurred in determining unresolved paternities. In addition to the modern standard methods, such as the examination of DNA or serological proof, expert opinion on fertility once played an important role. The andrological difference between incapability to fertilise and the inability to participate in sexual intercourse was also distinguished historically. Of special significance was the discovery of spermatozoa by the medical student Johan Ham in 1677 and their further investigation by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek.Recently, modern DNA methods have also been applied for historical investigations. Illustrious examples are the DNA analysis in the case of Kaspar Hauser of Ansbach and the dispute about Thomas Jefferson, President of the U.S., fathering a child by one of his slaves. In this discourse, a medicinal-forensic review of the development of expert opinion, illustrated with historical case studies, is given.

God's signature: DNA profiling, the new gold standard in forensic science.

In the mid-1980s, when the first DNA profiling techniques were developed, the name DNA 'fingerprinting' was widely used. At the time, fingerprinting was a well-established forensic method, and it was rarely questioned in the courts. Fingerprint examiners were permitted to describe matching prints as evidence of individual identity, and they were not required to give probability estimates. Despite its nominal association with the older technique, DNA 'fingerprinting' went through a period of controversy, especially in the US courts. The association with fingerprinting was questioned, and experts were required to qualify their testimony with probability figures. Heated debate occurred in scientific publications and law courts about the statistical and population genetic assumptions that went into the probability calculations presented in court cases. However, by the late 1990s DNA profiling was so widely accepted that it became a basis for invidious comparison with all other forms of forensic evidence, including fingerprinting. In the past three years, the admissibility of fingerprint evidence has been challenged in several US federal and state courts. This article discusses the socio-legal and socio-technical issues that led to the inversion of credibility that characterized the intertwined history of the two techniques.

Past, present and future of forensic DNA typing.

Recent advances in our ability to dissect the human genome and the availability of platforms for genome-wide analysis and whole-genome sequencing are expected to develop new tools for both biomedical and forensic DNA analyses. Nowadays, we can individualize single cells left at the crime scene or analyze ancient human remains. Here, we provide a general view on the past, current and likely future directions of forensic DNA analysis.