DENTAL DISEASES AND OTHER ORAL PATHOLOGIES OF CAPTIVE JAGUARS (PANTHERA ONCA) FROM BELIZE, CENTRAL AMERICA.

Dental and oral diseases are prevalent in many mammalian species including wild felids. Determining the dental and oral health status of captive animal populations can help establish preventive and therapeutic strategies, leading to improved welfare and conservation efforts. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of periodontal disease, endodontic disease, tooth resorption, and other clinically relevant dental and maxillofacial abnormalities in a population of captive jaguars (Panthera onca) using clinical, radiographic, and histopathological findings. Fifteen jaguars, ranging from young adult to geriatric, kept at a private zoo in Belize, Central America, had a detailed oral examination under general anesthesia between January 2015 and March 2019. Periodontitis was present in 3.8% (16/423) of examined teeth and 53.8% (7/13) of jaguars that underwent periodontal probing. Endodontic disease secondary to dentoalveolar trauma was found in 21.0% (89/423) of teeth in 73.3% (11/15) of animals. Tooth resorption, which has not been previously documented in jaguars, affected 1.4% (6/423) of teeth in 13.3% (2/15) of jaguars. Other abnormalities included metallic foreign material (gunshot) identified radiographically in 33.3% (5/15) of jaguars and nontraumatizing malocclusion in 9.1% (1/11) of jaguars that had occlusion evaluated. Much of the oral pathology identified in captive jaguars is suspected to arise from capture and/or captivity-associated behaviors, as suggested by gunshot around the oral cavity, fractures of rostral teeth (canine and incisor teeth), and abrasions consistent with cage-biting on canine teeth. Anesthetized oral examination-including full-mouth intraoral radiographs, periodontal probing, and charting-is recommended for jaguars with clinical signs of oral pain, as well as for routine systemic evaluation.

Effect of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on glomerular filtration rate and urinary N-acetyl-ß-D-glucosaminidase activity in cats after dental surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of meloxicam or carprofen on glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and to evaluate the effect of meloxicam on urinary N-acetyl-ß-D-glucosaminidase (NAG) activity, of cats after dental surgery. STUDY DESIGN: Randomized, blinded, controlled trial. ANIMALS: A total of 24 mixed breed cats. METHODS: Cats were randomly assigned to one of three groups (n = 8 per group): meloxicam (0.2 mg kg-1); carprofen (4 mg kg-1); or saline (2 mL). Acepromazine (0.04 mg kg-1) and buprenorphine (0.02 mg kg-1) were administered intramuscularly as preanaesthetic medication. Test drugs were injected subcutaneously at the time of preanaesthetic medication. Anaesthesia was induced with intravenous propofol and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), respiratory rate (fR), heart rate (HR) and haemoglobin oxygen saturation values (SpO2) were recorded. All cats underwent ultrasonic dental scaling with polishing. Teeth extraction involved mucosal flap creation, removal of alveolar bone and flap closure. Plasma iohexol clearance (ICL), a measure of GFR, was estimated before and 24 hours after anaesthesia induction in all cats. Urinary NAG index was estimated in saline and meloxicam groups at the same time points as GFR. Between-group and -time point differences in GFR and NAG index were compared using mixed model analyses. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (p < 0.05). RESULTS: There was no significant difference in plasma ICL rate (range: from 1.22 ± 0.05 to 1.27 ± 0.04 mL kg minute-1) between groups or between time points. Urinary NAG index (range: from 1.0 ± 0.19 to 1.36 ± 0.29 Units gram-1) was not significantly different between meloxicam and saline groups. MAP, HR, fR and SpO2 did not differ significantly between groups. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Meloxicam and carprofen appeared to produce nonsignificant effects on GFR, and meloxicam did not affect the urinary NAG activity, of cats after dental surgery.

Recent developments in equine dentistry.

Equine dentistry is a rapidly developing clinical specialty. It has benefitted from key advances in anatomical and physiological research, development of equipment and instrumentation, utilisation of standing sedation and anaesthesia protocols, a change towards minimally invasive surgical techniques, and the introduction of restorative and endodontic techniques translated from techniques used in human and canine dentistry. Anatomical research has provided further insight into the endodontic system of incisors and cheek teeth and how it changes throughout development with age. Studies of the periodontium have demonstrated a rich vascular supply and repair capacity. Routine dental visits are increasingly being performed utilising sedation and clinical instruments for routine examinations. Equipment has become more efficient, battery-operated and miniaturised giving benefits to both equine dental maintenance work and advanced techniques, assisting the transition to minimally invasive techniques, and the development of endodontic and restorative dentistry. Diagnosis has also benefitted from advances in equipment such as patient-side digital radiography systems, high definition oroscopy, and small diameter flexible fibrescopes that are capable of visualising inside a pulp canal. Dental units combining endodontic high- and low-speed drills, suction and air or water flush are becoming increasingly used and adapted for equine use. Sedative combinations and standing anaesthesia protocols have meant that revisions of traditional techniques, as well as novel techniques, can be performed with almost no requirement for general anaesthesia. Equine dentistry can only continue to advance in this way if there is early identification of dental disease through clinical oral examinations, leading to a system based on prophylaxis, as in human dentistry. This necessitates a change in attitude of the public and industry in general to a proactive approach, with early intervention based on examination and diagnostic findings of practitioners and not necessarily based on the clinical signs displayed by the patient.

Adjunct Extraction Techniques in Equine Dentistry.

Adjunct extraction techniques are used when the shape or integrity of the tooth, the shape or size of the patient's oral cavity, the location of the tooth, or the location of the proximal teeth prevents or complicates standard oral extraction. Techniques described and discussed include partial coronectomy, tooth sectioning, minimally invasive buccotomy, transbuccal screw extraction, and commissurotomy.

A Brief History of Equine Dental Practice.

Equine dentistry has been practiced for almost 3000 years, making it one of the oldest areas of equine health care. Progress has been slow and mirrored changes seen in human medical care. Many horsemen practiced equine dentistry during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Most of what was known then concentrated on sharp enamel points and abnormal dental occlusal wear. This changed slowly in the late twentieth century as research in equine dentistry increased. Today, veterinarians performing equine dentistry focus on detailed oral examination and base treatment for proper diagnosis of orthodontic, endodontic, periodontal, or other forms of dental disease.

Equine Oral Extraction Techniques.

This article serves as a template for equine veterinarians to become proficient in basic intraoral premolar and molar extraction techniques of Equidae. Indications, equipment, and methodology are described. Numerous photos and videos are included to achieve a more immersive learning experience than can be accomplished with the written word alone. Clinicians performing these techniques will continue to improve their skillsets to achieve positive outcomes as case specifics become more challenging.

Equine Standing Surgical Extraction Techniques.

Dental repulsion techniques reported in the past decades have a high incidence of complications. Although the practice of surgical extractions in horses is limited because of the training, instrumentation, and experience required to perform these techniques, veterinarians should be aware these procedures are available, general anesthesia is not required, and when performed by skilled veterinary dentists they have low complication rates. Surgical techniques are often used after failure of other extraction techniques to remove retained tooth root and fragments or to debride chronically contaminated orofacial lesions. However, surgical extractions should be considered during initial treatment planning of all complicated cases.

Minimizing Equine Tooth Extraction Complications.

Oral extraction has become the most popular extraction technique owing to its high rate of success with minimal major complication. Repulsion continues to produce unacceptably high iatrogenic complication rates. To avoid tooth repulsion, veterinary dentists have introduced procedures to facilitate difficult intraoral extractions and surgical extraction techniques. Minimizing complications is best achieved preoperatively. A comprehensive preoperative evaluation and treatment plan allows the dentist to predict intraoperative complication and prepare for procedures to produce the best outcome. With proper case selection and adherence to extraction principles, the primary veterinarian and the veterinary dentist can perform equine tooth extractions with minimal complications.

Equine Oral Endoscopy.

Oral endoscopy is a valuable addition to the equine dental examination process. It enables veterinarians to visualize subtle oral disorders and is a useful client education tool. There are several commercially available oral endoscopic systems on the market. Practitioners can also assemble their own systems. An oral endoscope is used to perform a thorough and systematic oral examination and to visualize normal oral structures as well as oral disorders. It is also used to guide instrument placement during oral surgeries and other dental procedures.

Growth response of dental tissues to developmental stress in the domestic pig (Sus scrofa).

OBJECTIVES: To compare relative response of enamel, dentin and bone to developmental stressors between attritional and catastrophic mortality assemblages of pigs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Heads from 70 Sus scrofa of known sex, weight and age comprising an attritional sample of 50 sick pen (SP) pigs that died prematurely versus 20 control pigs slaughtered at 6 months (Catastrophic assemblage). Hard tissue changes (alveolar bone thinning), abnormal bone formation (Harris lines) and re-modeling (auditory bullae) were recorded. Areas and volumes of coronal enamel and dentin were recorded from microCT scans with Avizo 6.3 and Geomagic Wrap. RESULTS: Attritional and catastrophic assemblages are metrically indistinguishable. Ages at death and tissue measures in the SP pigs are differentially distributed, necessitating partition into developmental outcome cohorts. SP "late death" pigs are of lesser physiological maturity than expected, free of disease, with large dental tissue dimensions, comparable to "Controls". SP "early death" pigs have 5% less dentin and enamel and chronic bone infection. Older cohorts of the SP "early deaths" mortality assemblage show progressively reduced enamel. SP pigs show dental evidence of reduced bone mass in the maxilla. DISCUSSION: Bone, dentin and enamel tissues, each, respond distinctively to developmental stressors. Bone mass evinces malnutrition not disease. Both dental tissue reduction and abnormal bone formation link to chronic infection. Paradoxically, reduced dentin mass signals lower survivorship while reduced enamel signals enhanced survivorship. Meaningful comparison of Attritional and Catastrophic assemblages necessitates recognition of developmental outcome cohorts, stratified by age at death and physiological maturity, to reveal heterogeneity of survivorship, tissue measures and lesions.

Radiographic Assessment of Dental Pathology and Abnormalities in Dolphins.

This study proposes a simple standardized method for the production of analog X-ray images of dolphin teeth, and to explore its potential use as a complementary technique in the evaluation of dental pathology in small cetaceans. We investigated exposure times that produced the best results, and whether radiographs helped in the diagnosis of macroscopic abnormalities. Teeth of six species of dolphins (Delphinidae: Tursiops truncatus, Steno bredanensis, Sotalia guianensis, Delphinus sp., Stenella coeruleoalba, and Stenella frontalis) were X-rayed in an analog dental X-ray machine operating at 70 kVp and 7 mA. Intraoral size 2 standard films were used, and the focus-film distance was standardised at 35 cm. Those species with smaller teeth (total length 12-20 mm) had the best results when exposed for 0.3 seconds, while species with larger teeth (30-45 mm) had to be exposed for 0.4 seconds for their best result. Three independent examiners analysed all the images taken. The average pairwise percent agreement was 73% (Fleiss' Kappa = 0.229), suggesting fair agreement between examiners. Analog X-ray images produced were useful in complementing the diagnosis of dental pathology and abnormalities in dolphins, in addition to allowing the observation of internal details and lesion depths, which would not be possible with conventional macroscopic methods. The use of analog X-ray imaging is easily applicable to the study of dolphin teeth, with low operating costs and simple logistics compared to other non-destructive analytical approaches such as Micro-CT.

Diagnoses and Treatment of Dental Disorders in a Research Colony of Macaca fascicularis: A Case Series.

During daily routine oral examinations in a research colony of nonhuman primates (NHPs, Macaca fascicularis), a variety of oral-dental lesions were identified. A dental care program was established based on these findings. Based on the presence of dental clinical signs and their severity, 31 animals were triaged to be examined and treated by a veterinarian. Clinical examination consisted of visual inspection using a periodontal probe/explorer and full or partial mouth dental radiographs. Treatment was performed during the same procedure. Some animals had a follow-up examination including radiographs months later. Four common dental diseases were diagnosed: periodontal disease, caries, tooth fracture, and tooth attrition. Less frequent were dental abscess, enamel hypomineralization, gingival hyperplasia, hypercementosis, tooth luxation, tooth dysplasia, root resorption, abrasion. Less severe periodontal disease was treated conservatively. If severely affected, teeth were extracted. Well-circumscribed caries without endodontic involvement were treated by composite restoration. Teeth with extensive caries and pulp involvement were extracted. Teeth with exposed pulp were treated via extraction or orthograde root canal treatment. In this case series, 27 (87%) of 31 NHPs exhibited at least 1 moderate to severe dental lesion that required treatment. The presumable improvement in welfare and weight of oral/dental lesions for the overall health status in research NHPs encourages us to continue this program prospectively.

Free-ranging Cayo Santiago rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): III. Dental eruption patterns and dental pathology.

This article describes the dental eruption patterns, dentition, and dental wear, including tooth loss and breakage, of the free-ranging population of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) on Cayo Santiago (CS), Puerto Rico, ranging from 24 hr to 25 years old. Of the 694 monkeys on the island in the year 1985, 688 (99.1%; 366 males, 322 females) were captured and the dentition of 685 subjects (98.7% of the total population; 366 males, 319 females) was examined. Animals ranged in age from less than 24 hr to 331 months (27.58 years), encompassing the entire life span of the CS macaques. Results demonstrated that the first deciduous teeth appeared as early as the third day of life and that the sequence of dental eruption was comparable to the pattern observed in laboratory rhesus. However, there were slight differences in the age of eruption of individual teeth. For example, the canines and third molars erupted about a year later in the CS macaques compared to some laboratory rhesus. Overall, CS rhesus had good oral health and dental condition although tooth wear, loss, and breakage were common in aged animals, especially in males. This report, combined with earlier studies on morphological characteristics and skeletal remains of the CS macaques, provides the basis for further studies on the biology, genetics, life history, and effects of the environment on rhesus monkeys.

A Retrospective Study of the Effectiveness of Four Different Treatments of Periodontal Disease in Equine Cheek Teeth.

Periodontal disease of equine cheek teeth is common and may lead to tooth loss if left untreated. Limited information is available comparing the effectiveness of treatment methods. The objective of this study was to retrospectively compare the effectiveness of 4 commonly used treatments in reducing periodontal pocket depth (in addition to routine dental treatment and occlusal equilibration). The 4 treatments compared were (1) removal of feed material, lavaging the pocket with dilute chlorhexidine, and then rinsing the mouth with chlorhexidine-containing mouthwash (CL); (2) CL plus placement of metronidazole into the pocket (M); (3) M plus the addition of polyvinyl siloxane temporary filling over the diastema (PVS); and (4) diastema widening to increase the interdental space, then PVS (DW). Pocket measurements were compared before and 2 to 6 months after treatment. Treatment groups CL, M, and PVS showed statistically significant reductions in pocket depth following treatment. The mean pocket depth reduction was the greatest in the DW group (and this was the only group with no cases having an increase in pocket depth), but this was not significant due to the small sample size. Additional analysis to compare effectiveness revealed a confounding effect of initial pocket depth. After accounting for this, DW was associated with smaller improvements than the other treatments, however, this was also based on a small sample size. After accounting for confounders, differences between treatments CL, M and PVS were not found to be significant, although all were associated with statistically significant reductions in pocket depth.

DENTAL LESIONS IN THE LOWLAND TAPIR (TAPIRUS TERRESTRIS).

Dental ailments, mandibular swelling, and dentoalveolar abscesses are common in tapirs, but knowledge about prevalence or etiology of these lesions in the Tapiridae family in general, and in lowland tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) in particular, is scarce. A recent study identified resorptive lesions of unknown etiology as a common problem in the Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus). In order to investigate the type and prevalence of dental lesions occurring in lowland tapirs, and to compare these with findings with the Malayan tapir, skulls and teeth from 46 deceased lowland tapirs were visually and radiographically examined. The specimens were divided into subpopulations according to age (juveniles, young adults, adults) and origin (free-range or captive). Dental lesions were identified in 24% (11/46) of the study population. The most common pathologic findings were complicated dental fractures with associated periapical reaction (15%) and periapical reactions of various degrees without associated detectable dental pathology (13%). All these lesions likely originated from dental trauma. As in Malayan tapirs, juveniles had significantly fewer lesions than adults. This study shows that dental lesions present frequent problems for lowland tapirs, occurring both in captive and in free-ranging individuals, and indicates that increasing age should be considered a risk factor for the development of these lesions. Notably, the predominant dental problems in lowland tapirs and Malayan tapirs are not the same.

Suspect Odontogenic Infection Etiology for Canine Lymphoplasmacytic Rhinitis.

The role of odontogenic infection as an etiology for lymphoplasmacytic rhinitis in dogs was evaluated. An association between odontogenic infection and inflammatory rhinitis was identified in 55% of cases evaluated. Odontogenic infection was unlikely or undetermined in 10% and 35% of the cases, respectively. Cases of lymphoplasmacytic rhinitis had roentgen signs associated with endodontic disease, periodontal disease, or retained tooth roots in 60%, 45%, and 25% of the cases, respectively. A collaborative team based approach assessing inflammatory nasal disease is recommended. Based on the history and signalment of the individual patient, diagnostic modalities should be chosen wisely. In some cases, oral examination and intraoral radiographs may be a more direct and cost effective approach for diagnosis and treatment of inflammatory rhinitis.

Evaluation of a romifidine constant rate infusion protocol with or without butorphanol for dentistry and ophthalmologic procedures in standing horses.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the clinical usefulness of constant rate infusion (CRI) protocols of romifidine with or without butorphanol for sedation of horses. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective 'blinded' controlled trial using block randomization. ANIMALS: Forty healthy Freiberger stallions. METHODS: The horses received either intravenous (IV) romifidine (loading dose: 80 µg kg(-1) ; infusion: 30 µg kg(-1)  hour(-1) ) (treatment R, n = 20) or romifidine combined with butorphanol (romifidine loading: 80 µg kg(-1) ; infusion: 29 µg kg(-1)  hour(-1) , and butorphanol loading: 18 µg kg(-1) ; infusion: 25 µg kg(-1)  hour(-1) ) (treatment RB, n = 20). Twenty-one horses underwent dentistry and ophthalmic procedures, while 19 horses underwent only ophthalmologic procedure and buccal examination. During the procedure, physiologic parameters and occurrence of head/muzzle shaking or twitching and forward movement were recorded. Whenever sedation was insufficient, additional romifidine (20 µg kg(-1) ) was administered IV. Recovery time was evaluated by assessing head height above ground. At the end of the procedure, overall quality of sedation for the procedure was scored by the dentist and anaesthetist using a visual analogue scale. Statistical analyses used two-way anova or linear mixed models as relevant. RESULTS: Sedation quality scores as assessed by the anaesthetist were R: median 7.55, range: 4.9-9.0 cm, RB: 8.8, 4.7-10.0 cm, and by the dentist R: 6.6, 3.0-8.2 cm, RB: 7.9, 6.6-8.8 cm. Horses receiving RB showed clinically more effective sedation as demonstrated by fewer poor scores and a tendency to reduced additional drug requirements. More horses showed forward movement and head shaking in treatment RB than treatment R. Three horses (two RB, one R) had symptoms of colic following sedation. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The described protocols provide effective sedation under clinical conditions but for dentistry procedures, the addition of butorphanol is advantageous.

Standing equine dental surgery.

Dental surgeries refer to procedures that affect the dental tissues or their supporting structures. With the development of specific, efficacious, and conservative treatments, morbidity risks have been lowered and chances of benefiting the health of equids improved. Advances in quality of sedation, analgesia, and locoregional anesthesia allow a majority of dental surgeries to be performed in the standing patient. This update focuses on an orthograde endodontic technique, a minimally invasive buccotomy technique, with the potential to combine it with a transbuccal screw extraction technique, and revisits the AO pinless external fixator for fractures of the body of the mandible.

Dental erosion following clopidogrel administration in a dog: A case-based study.

A 10-year-old neutered male Chihuahua presented with unilateral dental erosion that occurred after several months of oral medications mixed with honey. A pH test was performed on all oral medications administered to the dogs to determine the cause of enamel erosion. Among the medications, the only acidic medication was clopidogrel (pH 2.65). To evaluate the effect of clopidogrel on the tooth surface under the same conditions as in the present patient, an additional preliminary study was designed in which two extracted teeth of another dog were immersed in a clopidogrel-honey mixture or only in honey. After a 3-week soaking of the extracted tooth in the clopidogrel-honey mixture, field-emission scanning electron microscope analysis revealed a rougher surface, whereas energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis showed a reduced Ca/C ratio compared to the control tooth. In this case, prolonged exposure of the tooth surface to clopidogrel may be a cause of dental erosion.

Assessment of dental abnormalities by full-mouth radiography in small breed dogs.

This study was performed to evaluate full-mouth radiographic findings to determine the prevalence of dental abnormalities and analyze the relationship between dental abnormalities and age in small breed dogs. Sixteen predetermined categories of abnormal radiographic findings were evaluated in 233 small breed dogs. In total, 9,786 possible permanent teeth could be evaluated. Of those, 8,308 teeth were evaluated and abnormal radiographic findings were found in 2,458 teeth (29.6%). The most common teeth with abnormal radiographic findings were the mandibular first molars (74.5% on the left and 63.9% on the right) and the maxillary fourth premolars (40.5% on the left and 38.2% on the right). Bone loss of any type (15.8%) was the most commonly detected radiographic abnormal finding among the 16 categories. Dental conditions with a genetic predisposition were frequently occurred in the mandibular premolar teeth. Shih tzu frequently had unerupted teeth and dentigerous cysts. Among the teeth with abnormal radiographic findings, 4.5%, 19.8%, and 5.3% were considered incidental, additional, and important, respectively. Findings that were only detected on radiographs, which were not noted on routine oral examination, were more common in older dogs. Full-mouth radiographic evaluation should be performed to obtain important information for making accurate diagnoses.