Advances in vascularization and innervation of constructs for neural tissue engineering.

A growing number of technologies are being developed to promote vascularization and innervation in engineered tissues. Organ-on-a-chip, organoid and 3D printing technologies, as well as pre-vascularized and oriented scaffolds, have been employed for vascularization and innervation of engineered tissues both in vivo and in vitro. Both vascularization and innervation are critical for neural tissue engineering, as these complex tissues require provision of both blood and nerves. As such, this review will have particular focus on neural tissue engineering. We examine state-of-the-art approaches for tissue vascularization and innervation and identify promising methods for developing vascularized and innervated engineered neural constructs.