Transcriptomic and metabolic responses of Calotropis procera to salt and drought stress.

BACKGROUND: Calotropis procera is a wild plant species in the family Apocynaceae that is able to grow in harsh, arid and heat stressed conditions. Understanding how this highly adapted plant persists in harsh environments should inform future efforts to improve the hardiness of crop and forage plant species. To study the plant response to droµght and osmotic stress, we treated plants with polyethylene glycol and NaCl and carried out transcriptomic and metabolomics measurements across a time-course of five days. RESULTS: We identified a highly dynamic transcriptional response across the time-course including dramatic changes in inositol signaling, stress response genes and cytokinins. The resulting metabolome changes also involved sharp increases of myo-inositol, a key signaling molecule and elevated amino acid metabolites at later times. CONCLUSIONS: The data generated here provide a first glimpse at the expressed genome of C. procera, a plant that is exceptionally well adapted to arid environments. We demonstrate, through transcriptome and metabolome analysis that myo-inositol signaling is strongly induced in response to drought and salt stress and that there is elevation of amino acid concentrations after prolonged osmotic stress. This work should lay the foundations of future studies in adaptation to arid environments.

Two new species of the Fusarium fujikuroi species complex isolated from the natural environment.

Two new species in the Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFSC) are introduced. One of these, represented by strain CBS 454.97 was isolated from plant debris (Striga hermonthica) in the Sudan, while the second, represented by strains CBS 119850 and CBS 483.94, which originated from soil in Australia. Molecular analyses were performed including TEF1 spanning 576 bp region, 860 bp region of rPB2, and 500 bp BT2 region. Phylogenetic trees based on these regions showed that the two species are clearly distinct from all known taxa in the F. fujikuroi species complex. Based on phenotypic, physiological characters and molecular data, we introduce Fusarium sudanense and Fusarium terricola as novel species in the complex.

Nomenclatural notes on Nadsoniella and the human opportunist black yeast genus Exophiala.

The opportunistic black yeast are particularly known through the genus Exophiala, characterised by annellidic budding cells. However, this phenotype is polyphyletic within the order Chaetothyriales. Seventeen generic names are available in the family Herpotrichiellaceae, one of which is Exophiala. Future taxonomy will be based on molecular phylogeny; each multi-species clade may qualify for one of these names. This paper focuses on the genus Nadsoniella, which is the oldest valid name in the Herpotrichiellaceae. Despite its exophiala-like phenotype, the type species of Nadsoniella clusters in the jeanselmei-clade, competing with the sympodial genus Rhinocladiella. In contrast, Exophiala competes with morphologically pronounced genera Thysanorea and Veronaea. Replacing the current phenotypic system for phylogenetic nomenclature requires highly stable phylogenies, which currently are not available.

The genus Anthopsis and its phylogenetic position in Chaetothyriales.

The genus Anthopsis was introduced for a black fungus with peculiar, inverted phialides and triangular conidia. The genus accommodates, in addition to the type species Anthopsis deltoidea, which once was reported as a cause of human phaeohyphomycosis, two further taxa: A. catenata and A. microspora. Current taxonomy is mainly based on microscopic structures of phialides. To assess the phylogenetic position of the genus, sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region and partial LSU rDNA were obtained for Anthopsis spp. and compared with sequences from public databases. Phylogenetic analyses based on both loci were used to assess the evolutionary relationships of Anthopsis spp. at the family and ordinal levels. Anthopsis s.str. was found to cluster in Chaetothyriales, while A. catenata proved to be of helotialean affinity. Thermotolerance and morphology of each species were recorded.

Differential response of nano zinc sulphate with other conventional sources of Zn in mitigating salinity stress in rice grown on saline-sodic soil.

Salinization causes the degradation of the soil and threatening the global food security but the application of essential micronutrients like zinc (Zn), improve the plant growth by stabilizing the plant cell and root development. Keeping in view the above-mentioned scenario, an experiment was conducted to compare the efficiency of conventional Zn fertilizers like zinc sulphate (ZnSO4), zinc ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (Zn-EDTA) and advance nano Zn fertilizers such as zinc sulphate nanoparticles (ZnSO4NPs), and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) (applied at the rate of 5 and 10 mg/kg) in saline-sodic soil. Results revealed that the maximum plant height (67%), spike length (72%), root length (162%), number of tillers (71%), paddy weight (100%), shoot dry weight (158%), and root dry weight (119%) was found in ZnSO4NPs applied at the rate of 10 mg/kg (ZnSO4NPs-10) as compared to salt-affected control (SAC). Similarly, the plants physiological attributes like chlorophyll contents (91%), photosynthesis rate (113%), transpiration rate (106%), stomatal conductance (56%) and internal CO2 (11%) were increased by the application of ZnSO4NPs-10, as compared to SAC. The maximum Zn concentration in root (153%), shoot (205%) and paddy (167%) found in ZnSO4NPs-10, as compared to control. In the body of rice plants, other nutrients like phosphorus and potassium were also increased by the application of ZnSO4NPs-10 and soil chemical attributes such as sodium and sodium adsorption ratio were decreased. The current experiment concluded that the application of ZnSO4NPs at the rate of 10 mg/kg in salt-affected paddy soil increased the growth, physiology, up take of essential nutrients and yield of rice by balancing the cationic ratio under salt stress.

Potassium and Silicon Synergistically Increase Cadmium and Lead Tolerance and Phytostabilization by Quinoa through Modulation of Physiological and Biochemical Attributes.

Cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) contaminated soils have increased recently, resulting in limited crop productivity. The ameliorative role of potassium (K) and silicon (Si) is well established in plants under heavy metals stress; however, their combined role under the co-contamination of Cd and Pb is not well understood. We hypothesized that the synergistic application of K and Si would be more effective than their sole treatment for increasing the Pb and Cd tolerance and phytostabilization potential of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). In the current study, quinoa genotype 'Puno' was exposed to different concentrations of Cd (0, 200 µM), Pb (0, 500 µM) and their combination with or without 10 mM K and 1.0 mM Si supplementation. The results revealed that the combined stress of Cd and Pb was more detrimental than their separate application to plant biomass (66% less than the control), chlorophyll content and stomatal conductance. Higher accumulation of Pb and Cd led to a limited uptake of K and Si in quinoa plants. The supplementation of metal-stressed plants with 10 mM K and 1.0 mM Si, particularly in combination, caused a significant increase in the growth, stomatal conductance and pigment content of plants. The combined stress of Cd and Pb resulted in an overproduction of H2O2 (11-fold) and TBARS (13-fold) and a decrease in membrane stability (59%). Oxidative stress induced by metals was lessened by 8-fold, 9-fold, 7-fold and 11-fold increases in SOD, CAT, APX and POD activities, respectively, under the combined application of K and Si. It is concluded that the exogenous supply of K and Si in combination is very promising for increasing Cd and Pb tolerance and the phytostabilization potential of quinoa.

Antioxidative Defense System, Hormones, and Metabolite Accumulation in Different Plant Parts of Two Contrasting Rice Cultivars as Influenced by Plant Growth Regulators Under Heat Stress.

We examined the metabolic, hormonal, enzymatic, and non-enzymatic responses of various plant components (leaf, root, and xylem sap) to plant growth regulators [methyl jasmonate (MeJA), ascorbic acid (Vc), brassinosteroids (Br), triazoles (Tr), alpha-tocopherol (Ve), and control] under heat stress [ambient temperature (AT), heat stress at night time (HNT), and heat stress at day (HDT)] in heat-sensitive (IR-64) and heat-tolerant (Huanghuazhan) rice cultivars under greenhouse conditions. Our results showed that heat stress altered the antioxidant activities and hormonal balance and rigorously reduced total soluble sugars, proteins, and proline, whereas increases were observed in H2O2 and Malondialdehyde (MDA) content accumulation in the plant xylem sap and leaves of both tested cultivars; however, the impact was more pronounced in IR-64. The superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR), Glutathione (GSH), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), and monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR) activities were higher in Huanghuazhan than in IR-64 in response to temperature stress, when compared to AT. Additionally, heat stress increased abscisic acid (ABA) levels in both rice cultivars, especially in IR-64. The highest concentrations of hormones were recorded in the roots, followed by the leaves and xylem sap, in both cultivars. HDT and HNT stresses severely reduced the concentrations of all of the cytokinin types (except for iP9G and tZ9G) and IAA in the different plant parts of rice cultivars. Moreover, HNT was more detrimental for hormone and metabolite synthesis in both cultivars. The growth regulators (especially Vc + Br + Ve + MeJA) were comparatively more effective in minimizing the hostile impact of heat stress on most of the studied traits and should be applied to obtain the optimum yield of rice in subtropical and tropical areas under changing climatic conditions.

Phylogenetic and Expression Studies of Small GTP-Binding Proteins in Solanum lycopersicum Super Strain B.

This investigation involved a comparative analysis of the small GTPase superfamily in S. lycopersicum super strain B compared to their analogues in leguminous and other non-leguminous species. The small GTPases superfamily members were recognized by tBLASTn searches. The sequences of amino acid were aligned using Clustal Omega and the analysis of phylogeny was performed with the MEGA7 package. Protein alignments were applied for all studied species. Three-dimensional models of RABA2, ROP9, and ROP10 from Solanum lycopersicum "Super strain B" were performed. The levels of mRNA of the Rab, Arf, Rop, and Ran subfamilies were detected in aerial tissues vs. roots. Significant divergences were found in the number of members and groups comprising each subfamily of the small GTPases and Glycine max had the highest count. High expression of Rab and Arf proteins was shown in the roots of legumes whilst in non-legume plants, the highest values were recorded in aerial tissues. S. lycopersicum super strain B had the highest expression of Rab and Arf proteins in its aerial tissues, which may indicate that diazotroph strains have supreme activities in the aerial tissues of strain B and act as associated N-fixing bacteria. The phylogenies of the small GTPase superfamily of the studied plants did not reveal asymmetric evolution of the Ra, Arf, Rop, and Ran subfamilies. Multiple sequence alignments derived from each of the Rab, Arf, and Rop proteins of S. lycopersicum super strain B showed a low frequency of substitutions in their domains. GTPases superfamily members have definite functions during infection, delivery, and maintenance of N2-fixing diazotroph but show some alterations in their function among S. lycopersicum super strain B, and other species.

Enriching Urea with Nitrogen Inhibitors Improves Growth, N Uptake and Seed Yield in Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) Affecting Photochemical Efficiency and Nitrate Reductase Activity.

Quinoa is a climate resilience potential crop for food security due to high nutritive value. However, crop variable response to nitrogen (N) use efficiency may lead to affect grain quality and yield. This study compared the performance of contrasting quinoa genotypes (UAF Q-7, EMS-line and JQH1) to fertilizer urea enriched with urease and nitrification inhibitors (NIs; 1% (w/w) thiourea + boric acid + sodium thiosulphate), ordinary urea and with no N as control. Application of NIs-enriched urea improved plant growth, N uptake and chlorophyll values in quinoa genotype UAF-Q7 and JHQ1, however, highest nitrate reductase (NR) activity was observed in EMS-line. Quinoa plants supplied with NIs-enriched urea also completed true and multiple leaf stage, bud formation, flowering, and maturity stages earlier than ordinary urea and control, nevertheless, all quinoa genotypes reached true and multiple leaf stage, flowering and maturity stages at same time. Among photosynthetic efficiency traits, application of NIs-enriched urea expressed highest photosynthetic active radiations (PAR), electron transport rate (ETR), current fluorescence (Ft) and reduced quantum yield (Y) in EMS line. Nitrogen treatments had no significant difference for panicle length, however, among genotypes, UAF-Q7 showed highest length of panicle followed by others. Among yield attributes, NIs-enriched urea expressed maximum 1000-seed weight and seed yield per plant in JQH-1 hybrid and EMS-line. Likely, an increase in quinoa grain protein contents was observed in JQH-1 hybrid for NIs-enriched urea. In conclusion, NIs-enriched urea with urease and nitrification inhibitors simultaneously can be used to improve the N uptake, seed yield and grain protein contents in quinoa, however, better crop response was attributed to enhanced plant growth and photosynthetic efficiency.

Silicon-nanoparticles doped biochar is more effective than biochar for mitigation of arsenic and salinity stress in Quinoa: Insight to human health risk assessment.

The increasing contamination of soil with arsenic (As), and salinity has become a menace to food security and human health. The current study investigates the comparative efficacy of plain biochar (BC), and silicon-nanoparticles doped biochar (SBC) for ameliorating the As and salinity-induced phytotoxicity in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and associated human health risks. Quinoa was grown on normal and saline soils (ECe 12.4 dS m-1) contaminated with As (0, 20 mg kg-1) and supplemented with 1% of BC or SBC. The results demonstrated that plant growth, grain yield, chlorophyll contents, and stomatal conductance of quinoa were decreased by 62, 44, 48, and 66%, respectively under the blended stress of As and salinity as compared to control. Contrary to this, the addition of BC to As-contaminated saline soil caused a 31 and 25% increase in plant biomass and grain yield. However, these attributes were increased by 45 and 38% with the addition of SBC. The H2O2 and TBARS contents were enhanced by 5 and 10-fold, respectively under the combined stress of As and salinity. The SBC proved to be more efficient than BC in decreasing oxidative stress through overexpressing of antioxidant enzymes. The activities of superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase were enhanced by 5.4, 4.6, and 11-fold with the addition of SBC in As-contaminated saline soil. Contamination of grains by As revealed both the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks to human health, however, these effects were minimized with the addition of SBC. As accumulation in grains was decreased by 65-fold and 25-fold, respectively for BC and SBC in addition to As-contaminated saline soil. The addition of SBC to saline soils contaminated with As for quinoa cultivation is an effective approach for decreasing the food chain contamination and improving food security. However, more research is warranted for the field evaluation of the effectiveness of SBC in abating As uptake in other food crops cultivated on As polluted normal and salt-affected soils.

Enhancing Salt Tolerance in Soybean by Exogenous Boron: Intrinsic Study of the Ascorbate-Glutathione and Glyoxalase Pathways.

Boron (B) performs physiological functions in higher plants as an essential micronutrient, but its protective role in salt stress is poorly understood. Soybean (Glycine max L.) is planted widely throughout the world, and salinity has adverse effects on its physiology. Here, the role of B (1 mM boric acid) in salt stress was studied by subjecting soybean plants to two levels of salt stress: mild (75 mM NaCl) and severe (150 mM NaCl). Exogenous B relieved oxidative stress by enhancing antioxidant defense system components, such as ascorbate (AsA) levels, AsA/dehydroascorbate ratios, glutathione (GSH) levels, the GSH and glutathione disulfide ratios, and ascorbate peroxidase, monodehydroascorbate reductase, and dehydroascorbate reductase activities. B also enhanced the methylglyoxal detoxification process by upregulation of the components of the glyoxalase system in salt-stressed plants. Overall, B supplementation enhanced antioxidant defense and glyoxalase system components to alleviate oxidative stress and MG toxicity induced by salt stress. B also improved the physiology of salt-affected soybean plants.

Exogenous Application of Zinc to Mitigate the Salt Stress in Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek-Evaluation of Physiological and Biochemical Processes.

Salt stress adversely affects the growth and productivity of crops. However, reports suggest that the application of various micronutrients could help the plant to cope with this stress. Hence, the objective of the study was to examine the effect of exogenous application of Zinc (Zn) on salt tolerance in Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek (mungbean). Mungbean is considered to be an economically important crop and possess a strategic position in Southeast Asian countries for sustainable crop production. It is rich in quality proteins, minerals and vitamins. Three weeks old grown seedlings were subjected to NaCl (150 mM and 200 mM) alone or with Zn (250 µM). After 21 days of treatment, plants were harvested for investigating morphological, physiological and biochemical changes. We found that the Zn application mitigates the negative effect upon plant growth to a variable extent. This may be attributed to the increased shoot and root length, improved chlorophyll and carotenoid contents, enhanced total soluble sugar (TSS), total soluble protein (TSP) and proline accumulation, decreased H2O2 content and increased enzymatic antioxidant activities. Zn's application improved the performance of the enzymes such as phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and tyrosine ammonia-lyase (TAL) of the secondary metabolism, which resulted in the improvement of total phenol and flavonoids. The antioxidant activities such as 1,1diphenyl 2-picryl hydrazine (DPPH) and ferrous reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP) of the plants also showed improved results in their salt only treatments. Furthermore, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and superoxide radical (SOD) scavenging activity were also improved upon the application of 250 µM zinc. Thus, Zn application in low doses offers promising potential for recovering plants suffering from salinity stress. In conclusion, we assume that zinc application improved salt tolerance in mungbean through the improvement of various physiological and photochemical processes which could prove to be useful in nutrient mediated management for crop improvement.

Silymarin-Enriched Biostimulant Foliar Application Minimizes the Toxicity of Cadmium in Maize by Suppressing Oxidative Stress and Elevating Antioxidant Gene Expression.

For maize, the potential preventive role of foliar spraying with an extract derived from maize grain (MEg, 2%), silymarin (Sm, 0.5 mM), or silymarin-enriched MEg (MEg-Sm) in attenuating the stress effects of cadmium (Cd, 0.5 mM) was examined using a completely randomized design layout. Under normal conditions, foliar spraying with MEg, Sm, or MEg-Sm was beneficial (with MEg-Sm preferred) for maize plants, whereas the benefit was more pronounced under Cd stress. The use of Cd through irrigation water decreased plant growth traits, photosynthetic efficiency, including instantaneous carboxylation efficiency, Fv/Fm, and pigment contents, and hormonal contents (e.g., auxin, gibberellins, cytokinins including trans-zeatin, and salicylic acid). These undesired findings were due to an increase in Cd content, leading to increased levels of oxidative stress (O2•- and H2O2), ionic leakage, and lipid peroxidation. Therefore, this damage resulted in an increase in the activities of nonenzymatic antioxidants, Sm, antioxidative enzymes, and enzyme gene expression. However, under Cd stress, although foliar spray with MEg or Sm had better findings than control, MEg-Sm had better findings than MEg or Sm. Application of MEg-Sm greatly increased photosynthesis efficiency, restored hormonal homeostasis, and further increased the activities of various antioxidants, Sm, antioxidative enzymes, and enzyme gene expression. These desired findings were due to the suppression of the Cd content, and thus the levels of O2•-, H2O2, ionic leakage, and lipid peroxidation, which were positively reflected in the growth and accumulation of dry matter in maize plants. The data obtained in this study recommend applying silymarin-enriched maize grain extract (MEg-Sm at 0.24 g Sm L-1 of MEg) as a spray solution to maize plants when exposed to excess Cd in soil or irrigation water.

Identification of physiological and biochemical markers for salt (NaCl) stress in the seedlings of mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] genotypes.

Salt stress, which is dominant among environmental stresses, poses challenges to global agriculture. We studied the role of exogenous application of sodium chloride (NaCl) in three arid and three semi-arid genotypes of mungbean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] by examining some physiological and biochemical stress indicators. Ten-day old seedlings were subjected to salt stress (00-250 mM) by split application along with the half strength Hoagland's medium. The salt stress caused a decline in the fresh weight, dry weight, relative water content, photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll and carotenoids) and glutathione content of the seedlings. On the other hand, it increased the electrolyte leakage, lipoxygenase activity, and the proline, protein and total soluble sugar contents. Osmolyte accumulation was relatively higher in the arid genotypes revealing that they are more tolerant to NaCl stress. The physiological and biochemical screening provides a basic platform for selecting the stress-tolerant genotypes in the absence of suitable salt-tolerance markers in mungbean.

Stepwise response of MeJA-induced genes and pathways in leaves of C. roseus.

Catharanthus roseus is a perennial herb known for the production of important terpenoid indole alkaloids (TIAs) in addition to a variety of phenolic compounds. The goal of the present work was to detect the prolonged effects of MeJA (6 uM) treatment across time (up to 24 days) in order to detect the stepwise response of MeJA-induced genes and pathways in leaves of C. rouses. Prolonged exposure of plants to MeJA (6 uM) treatment for different time points (6, 12 and 24 days) indicated that genes in the indole alkaloid biosynthesis pathway and upstream pathways were triggered earlier (e.g., 6 days) than those in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway and its upstream pathways (e.g., 12 days). Three enzymes, e.g., T16H, OMT, and D4H, in the six-step vindoline biosynthesis and two enzymes, e.g., TDC and STR, acting consecutively in the conversion of tryptophan to strictosidine, were activated after 6 days of MeJA treatment. Two other key enzymes, e.g., TRP and CYP72A1, acting concurrently upstream of the TIA biosynthesis pathway were upregulated after 6 days. The genes encoding TDC and STR might concurrently act as a master switch of the TIA pathway towards the production of the indole alkaloids. On the other hand, we speculate that the gene encoding PAL enzyme also acts as the master switch of phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and the downstream flavonoid biosynthesis and anthocyanin biosynthesis pathways towards the production of several phenolic compounds. PAL and the downstream enzymes were activated 12 days after treatment. Cluster analysis confirmed the concordant activities of the flower- and silique-specific bHLH25 transcription factor and the key enzyme in the TIA biosynthesis pathway, e.g., STR. Due to the stepwise response of the two sets of pathways, we speculate that enzymes activated earlier likely make TIA biosynthesis pathway a more favourable target in C. roseus than anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway.

Comparative metagenomics approaches to characterize the soil fungal communities of western coastal region, Saudi Arabia.

A total of 145007 reads were obtained from pyrosequencing for all the 4 samples. The total count ranged from 11,301,014 (Mecca old road) to 23,503,512 bp (Thuwal). A total of 460 fungal species belonging to 133 genera, 58 families, 33 orders, 13 classes and 4 phyla was identified across the four sites. The most abundant phylum at all four sites was Ascomycota followed by Basidiomycota. Four phyla (Ascomycota-99.31%, Basidiomycota-0.59%, Chytridiomycota-0.04%, Glomeromycota-0.03%) were detected in Khulais. Except for Glomeromycota, all phyla were detected at Mecca old road (Ascomycota-74.26%, Basidiomycota-25.71%, Chytridiomycota-0.01%) and Thuwal (Ascomycota-99.59%, Basidiomycota-0.40%, Chytridiomycota-0.002%); while only Ascomycota-90.98% and Basidiomycota-9.01% were detected in Asfan road. At the class level, Sordariomycetes was predominantly observed at Asfan road-59.88%, Khulais-68.26% and Thuwal-94.84%; while Pezizomycetes was dominant at Mecca old road-56.01%, was absent at Asfan road. Agaricomycetes was present only at Mecca old road-25.73%; while Tremellomycetes-5.77%, Malasseizomycetes-2.13% and Microbotryomycetes-1.10% were found only at Asfan road. The phylogenetic trees revealed that clear genus level differences are visible across all the four sites, with an overall predominance of Thielavia followed by Madurella, Aspergillus, and Gelasinospora. Chaetomium sp., Aspergillus caespitosus and Aspergillus sp. were found in moderate (Mecca old road and Thuwal) to abundant (Asfan road and Khulais) quantities. Thielavia sp., Thielavia hyalocarpa and Madurella sp. are found in moderate quantities at Khulais and Mecca old road, while in abundant levels at Asfan road and Thuwal. Fusarium equisati and F. oxysporum were detected at Thuwal and Khulais. Sordaria araneosa was present at Khulais, while Malasseiza globosa species was detected in moderate quantities across all sites except Khulais.

Origin and distribution of Sporothrix globosa causing sapronoses in Asia.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to evaluate the main sources and epidemiological patterns and speculate on the evolutionary origin of Sporothrix globosa in Asia. METHODOLOGY: Case and case series literature on sporotrichosis in Asia from January 2007 onwards were reviewed using meta-analysis. Phylogenetic analysis of relevant S. globosa was carried out on the basis of concatenated sequences of ITS, TEF3 and CAL. A haplotype network of CAL sequences of 281 Sporothrix isolates was analysed to determine the population structure of S. globosa. RESULTS: Nearly all cases of sporotrichosis caused by S. globosa in Asia were human. In contrast to the remaining pathogenic Sporothrix species, feline transmission was exceptional; nearly all regional cat-associated cases were caused by Sporothrix schenckii. While the latter species was highly variable and showed recombination, S. globosa seemed to be a clonal offshoot, as was Sporothrix brasiliensis. The origin of the segregants was located in an area of high variability in S. schenckii with a relatively high frequency of Asian strains. CONCLUSION: In Asia, S. globosa was the prevalent species. The low diversity of S. globosa suggested a recent divergence with a founder effect of low variability from the variable ancestral species, S. schenckii.

Metagenomic analysis of fungal taxa inhabiting Mecca region, Saudi Arabia.

The data presented contains the sequences of fungal Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) and 18S rRNA gene from a metagenome of the Mecca region, Saudi Arabia. Sequences were amplified using fungal specific primers, which amplified the amplicon aligned between the 18S and 28S rRNA genes. A total of 460 fungal species belonging to 133 genera, 58 families, 33 orders, 13 classes and 4 phyla were identified in four contrasting locations. The raw sequencing data used to perform this analysis along with FASTQ file are located in the NCBI Sequence Read Archive (SRA) under accession numbers: SRR3150823, SRR3144873, SRR3150825 and SRR3150846.

Arthrocladium, an unexpected human opportunist in Trichomeriaceae (Chaetothyriales).

The family Trichomeriaceae (Chaetothyriales) mainly comprises epiphytic and epilithic organisms. In some species elaborate ascomata are formed, but for the great majority the species no asexual conidium formation is known other than simple fragmentation of the thallus. The present paper re-establishes the genus Arthrocladium with three non-sporulating species. One of these is described for a strain causing a fatal infection in a human patient with a rare genetic immune disorder.

Transcriptional analysis of Rhazya stricta in response to jasmonic acid

BACKGROUND: Jasmonic acid (JA) is a signal transducer molecule that plays an important role in plant development and stress response; it can also efficiently stimulate secondary metabolism in plant cells. RESULTS: RNA-Seq technology was applied to identify differentially expressed genes and study the time course of gene expression in Rhazya stricta in response to JA. Of more than 288 million total reads, approximately 27% were mapped to genes in the reference genome. Genes involved during the secondary metabolite pathways were up- or downregulated when treated with JA in R. stricta. Functional annotation and pathway analysis of all up- and downregulated genes identified many biological processes and molecular functions. Jasmonic acid biosynthetic, cell wall organization, and chlorophyll metabolic processes were upregulated at days 2, 6, and 12, respectively. Similarly, the molecular functions of calcium-transporting ATPase activity, ADP binding, and protein kinase activity were also upregulated at days 2, 6, and 12, respectively. Time-dependent transcriptional gene expression analysis showed that JA can induce signaling in the phenylpropanoid and aromatic acid pathways. These pathways are responsible for the production of secondary metabolites, which are essential for the development and environmental defense mechanism of R. stricta during stress conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggested that genes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis and aromatic acid synthesis pathways were upregulated during JA stress. However, monoterpenoid indole alkaloid (MIA) was unaffected by JA treatment. Hence, we can postulate that JA plays an important role in R. stricta during plant development and environmental stress conditions.