Revisiting the cave-dwelling sand flies (Diptera, Psychodidae, Phlebotominae) from Brazil: Diversity and potential role in the transmission of Leishmania Ross, 1903 (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae).

Brazilian caves, one of the many tourist attractions of the country, may act as a shelter for insects, such as sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae), natural hosts of various microorganisms including parasites of the genus Leishmania Ross, 1903. In the last decades, with the increasing global need for sustainable development, ecotourism has emerged as one of the major activities in Brazil. However, the constant monitoring in environmentally protected areas is not often carried out, endangering visitors and professionals, especially due to the occurrence of zoonoses. Several sand fly species have already been recorded in Brazilian caves, drawing attention to the possibility of Leishmania transmission at this ecotope. Indeed, this current systematic review summarizes the fauna of cave-dwelling sand flies in Brazil, focusing on their biological behaviour and the occurrence of potential vectors of Leishmania parasites.

Sand fly behavior: much more than weak-flying.

BACKGROUND: Leishmaniases are diseases transmitted by some species of sand flies and are widely distributed throughout the tropical regions of the planet. Despite the low mobility of these vectors, the geographical distributions of some species are quite extensive, which hinders control and surveillance measures in endemic areas. OBJECTIVES: The present study investigated the flying capacity of sand flies. METHODS: Four Hoover Penido (HP)-type light traps were positioned in the centre of the Velhas' River, about 80 metres equidistant from each other. We also realised capture/release/recapture attempts to assess possible capacity of phlebotomine fly uninterrupted up to 150 metres. Captured sand flies from one side of the river were marked using fluorescent powder (Luminous Paint kit, Bioquip®) and released on the other side, approximately 150 m distant. Recapture attempts were made on river's bank up to 30 days post-release. FINDINGS: Six sand flies of the species Nyssomyia neivai (n = 4), Ny. intermedia (n = 1) and Evandromyia lenti (n = 1) were captured in the centre of the river. There were no recaptures of the 1,450 marked-and-released sand flies. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: The results obtained disagree with data found in the literature regarding the flight capacity of sand fly vectors of leishmaniasis.

Large-scale Degradation of the Tocantins-Araguaia River Basin.

The Tocantins-Araguaia Basin is one of the largest river systems in South America, located entirely within Brazilian territory. In the last decades, capital-concentrating activities such as agribusiness, mining, and hydropower promoted extensive changes in land cover, hydrology, and environmental conditions. These changes are jeopardizing the basin's biodiversity and ecosystem services. Threats are escalating as poor environmental policies continue to be formulated, such as environmentally unsustainable hydropower plants, large-scale agriculture for commodity production, and aquaculture with non-native fish. If the current model persists, it will deepen the environmental crisis in the basin, compromising broad conservation goals and social development in the long term. Better policies will require thought and planning to minimize growing threats and ensure the basin's sustainability for future generations.

Molecular Detection of Leishmania spp. and Blood Source of Female Sand Flies in the Parque Estadual do Rio Doce and Municipality of Timóteo, Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Leishmaniasis is a group of diseases caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania and is transmitted by the bite female sand fly. The present work is characterized as a descriptive study in two areas: a forest area located in the Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, and another urban area located in the municipality of Timóteo-MG, with the objective of identifying the presence of Leishmania spp. and the blood source of the collected female sand flies. Part of the females were obtained from the Parque Estadual do Rio Doce, and part was collected using 19 ligth traps distributed in residences of Timóteo. For molecular studies of Leishmania spp. DNA, the ITS1 gene was used, and in the search for blood source, the CytB gene was used and positive samples were sequenced. The study demonstrated that there are at least three species of Leishmania circulating in the study areas: Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis, Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis, and Leishmania (V.) guyanensis. Nyssomyia whitmani was the predominant sand fly species in the urban area of Timóteo with a positive diagnosis for the presence of Leishmania braziliensis DNA. We found the presence of blood from Gallus gallus (Chicken) and Sus scrofa (Pig) in sand flies. The present study demonstrates that Leishmania braziliensis is the main agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis in the study area, with the effective participation of Nyssomyia whitmani as the vector and both Gallus gallus and Sus scrofa acting as a food source for female sand flies, and helping maintaining the sand fly life.

Diversity, Leishmania detection, and blood meal sources of sand flies from Iguatama, Minas Gerais, Brazil.

This study investigated the sand fly fauna of the municipality Iguatama, in the Midwest Region of Minas Gerais state, Brazil, including Leishmania infection rates and blood meal sources. Sand flies were collected during four periods over the course of a single year, encompassing both dry and rainy seasons, using CDC light traps placed in peridomiciles where dogs were seropositive for visceral leishmaniasis (VL). A total of 762 sand fly specimens, representing 12 species across seven genera, were collected. Lutzomyia longipalpis was the most abundant species, comprising 57.6% of the collected specimens, followed by Nyssomyia neivai (19.6%) and Nyssomyia whitmani (10.5%). Species richness and diversity varied among collection periods, with the highest diversity observed in January 2019. Molecular analysis detected Leishmania DNA in 12.5% of the sand fly specimens, with Le. infantum being the predominant species. Blood meal analysis revealed feeding on multiple vertebrate species, including humans, rats, dogs, and chickens. The presence of Leishmania DNA in sand flies, and the identification of human blood meals, highlight the potential role of these species in VL transmission. These findings underscore the importance of continued surveillance and control measures to prevent the spread of VL and reduce transmission risk in the region.

The sandfly fauna (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) of the Parque Estadual da Serra da Tiririca, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in the state of Rio de Janeiro is sporadic and can be characterised as a peridomestic transmission that occurs in modified natural environments. The aim of this work was to study the fauna and ecological characteristics of sandflies in an environmentally protected area (the State Park of Serra da Tiririca) within the remnants of the Atlantic Forest in the municipalities of Niterói and Maricá and their possible relationship with leishmaniasis. Captures were performed using light traps during the night once a month for one year in both sylvatic environments and areas surrounding homes near the park. A total of 1,037 sandflies were captured, belonging to nine genera and 12 species: Evandromyia tupynambai (34.1%), Migonemyia migonei (20.6%), Brumptomyia cunhai (13.8%), Micropygomyia schreiberi (9.7%), Psathyromyia lanei (6.5%), Brumptomyia nitzulescui (5.7%), Evandromyia edwardsi (5.4%), Nyssomyia intermedia (2.8%), Evandromyia cortelezzii (0.6%), Pintomyia bianchigalatiae (0.5%), Lutzomyia longipalpis (0.2%) and Sciopemyia microps (0.1%). Both Mg. migonei and Ny. intermedia may be acting as vectors of CL in this area.

Predicting the geographic distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Diptera: Psychodidae) and visceral leishmaniasis in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.

To understand the geographic distribution of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul (MS), Brazil, both the climatic niches of Lutzomyia longipalpis and VL cases were analysed. Distributional data were obtained from 55 of the 79 counties of MS between 2003-2012. Ecological niche models (ENM) of Lu. longipalpis and VL cases were produced using the maximum entropy algorithm based on eight climatic variables. Lu. longipalpis showed a wide distribution in MS. The highest climatic suitability for Lu. longipalpis was observed in southern MS. Temperature seasonality and annual mean precipitation were the variables that most influenced these models. Two areas of high climatic suitability for the occurrence of VL cases were predicted: one near Aquidauana and another encompassing several municipalities in the southeast region of MS. As expected, a large overlap between the models for Lu. longipalpis and VL cases was detected. Northern and northwestern areas of MS were suitable for the occurrence of cases, but did not show high climatic suitability for Lu. longipalpis. ENM of vectors and human cases provided a greater understanding of the geographic distribution of VL in MS, which can be applied to the development of future surveillance strategies.

Ecology and natural infection of phlebotomine sand flies in different ecotopes and environments in the municipality of Pains, Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Phlebotomines (Diptera: Psychodidae) are vectors of protozoa of the genus Leishmania and distributed throughout Brazil, formerly restricted to rural areas, have expanded including to periurban and urban regions, been recorded in different habitats. This study aimed to understand the dynamics of sand flies in different ecotopes in the municipality of Pains. Sand flies were captured during thirty samplings using HP light traps installed in seven different ecotopes for two consecutive nights, once a month, from August 2018 to July 2019. A total of 1,352 sand flies were captured, representing 24 species belong to ten genera. Evandromyia edwardsi was the most abundant species, followed by Evandromyia lenti and Micropygomyia quinquefer. Leishmania DNA was detected in seven female sand flies in four ecotopes, for an infection rate of 0.9%. Sand flies were collected in all seven ecotopes, although forest (23.04%), cave (20.88%) and pasture (17.75%) had higher abundance and richness. Similarity was found among ecotopes, indicating that they are all important for the maintenance of the sand fly community. Spatial analysis indicated high densities of sand flies in areas with natural characteristics. All ecotopes in the municipality were evidenced to have an adequate and harmonious epidemiological profile for the transmission and expansion of leishmaniasis throughout the territory. Because of the increasing environmental changes and deforestation in the municipality, the risk of generating ecological imbalance and increased cases of leishmaniasis is imminent, which highlights the importance of developing preventive and control strategies.

Natural infection of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Lutz & Neiva, 1912) by Leishmania infantum in a municipality with a high incidence of visceral leishmaniasis in the Brazilian Midwest.

BACKGROUND: Here, Leishmania presence in sand flies from Três Lagoas, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, after visceral leishmaniasis (VL) was investigated. METHODS: In April 2022, two light traps were deployed within and around the residence for two days post-VL case report. RESULTS: A total of 120 Lutzomyia longipalpis were collected. Suprapyloric flagellates were found in a female sand fly with eggs and residual blood during midgut dissection. Sequencing of ITS1 and cytb fragments confirmed Leishmania infantum DNA and identified Homo sapiens as the blood source, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This study emphasizes the importance of monitoring sand flies in VL endemic areas.

Molecular detection of Leishmania and blood meal analysis in sand flies from Corumbá, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.

In this study, we investigated the presence of Leishmania in sand flies collected from a peridomestic area in Corumbá, Mato Grosso do Sul, after an autochthonous case of cutaneous leishmaniasis was confirmed. A total of 1,542 sand flies belonging to seven species were collected, with Lu. cruzi being the most prevalent (94.3%). We detected the presence of DNA from Le. infantum (7 pools) and Le. braziliensis (3 pools) by sequencing the ITS1 amplicon in ten pools, all of which were composed of engorged (3) and non-engorged (7) females of Lu. cruzi. We collected 24 engorged females, with Homo sapiens being the most common blood meal source (91.6%), followed by Dasyprocta azarae and Canis lupus familiaris (4.2% each). To our knowledge, this is the first molecular evidence of Le. braziliensis in wild-caught Lu. cruzi in Brazil, suggesting its potential role as a vector for this parasite.

Species diversity of sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae) during different seasons and in different environments in the district of Taquaruçú, state of Tocantins, Brazil.

Phlebotomine sandflies are the vectors for the protozoan parasites that cause leishmaniasis. The present study investigated the species composition of sandfly fauna in the rural district of Taquaruçú, municipality of Palmas, state of Tocantins, Brazil and compared the diversity of species among intradomicile, peridomicile and forest environments during the dry and rainy seasons. Sandflies were collected using CDC light traps over the course of three months during the dry and rainy seasons. A total of 767 specimens were captured, belonging to different 32 species. The most abundant species were Micropygomyia goiana (Martins, Falcão & Silva), Sciopemyia sordellii (Shannon & Del Ponte), Evandromyia carmelinoi (Ryan Fraiha, Lainson & Shaw), Evandromyia termitophila (Martins, Falcão & Silva), Nyssomyia whitmani (Antunes & Coutinho) and Lutzomyia longipalpis (Lutz & Neiva). The highest species diversity (30) and the greatest percentage of specimens (78.3%) were obtained during the rainy season. During the dry season, the species richness and abundance were greater in domestic environments. However, during the rainy season, the forest displayed the highest species richness and the domestic environment exhibited the greatest species abundance. Several important vector species are reported in this study.

Biogeographical aspects of the occurrence of Nyssomyia neivai and Nyssomyia intermedia (Diptera: Psychodidae) in a sympatric area of the Brazilian savannah.

Nyssomyia intermedia and Nyssomyia neivai constitute a species complex associated with Leishmania transmission. The aim of this study was to analyse the ecological profiles of the Ny. intermedia and Ny. neivai populations in a sympatric area in the Brazilian savannah along the banks of the Velhas River. Captures were performed from July 2003-June 2005 in two distinct environments: a gallery forest with various degrees of anthropogenic modification and animal shelters. A total of 20,508 Ny. neivai (86%) and Ny. intermedia (14%) sandflies were collected. The difference between the proportions of the sandflies that were collected (Ny. neivai/Ny. intermedia) per bank was significant. The right bank presented a greater number of sandflies (65%) and more preserved vegetation. The abundance of Ny. neivai was higher than that of Ny. intermedia on both banks. The results demonstrate that anthropic activities can affect the sandfly populations in this area, thereby leading to a reduction in species abundance. Nevertheless, the environments with higher levels of antropogenic modification displayed sandfly population numbers that favour the Leishmania transmission cycle.

Natural Leishmania sp. reservoirs and phlebotomine sandfly food source identification in Ibitipoca State Park, Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Leishmania spp are distributed throughout the world and different species are associated with varying degrees of disease severity. However, leishmaniasis is thought to be confined to areas of the world where its insect vectors, sandflies, are present. Phlebotomine sandflies obtain blood meals from a variety of wild and domestic animals and sometimes from humans. These vectors transmit Leishmania spp, the aetiological agent of leishmaniasis. Identification of sandfly blood meals has generally been performed using serological methods, although a few studies have used molecular procedures in artificially fed insects. In this study, cytochrome b gene (cytB) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed in DNA samples isolated from 38 engorged Psychodopygus lloydi and the expected 359 bp fragment was identified from all of the samples. The amplified product was digested using restriction enzymes and analysed for restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). We identified food sources for 23 females; 34.8% yielded a primate-specific banding profile and 26.1% and 39.1% showed banding patterns specific to birds or mixed restriction profiles (rodent/marsupial, human/bird, rodent/marsupial/human), respectively. The food sources of 15 flies could not be identified. Two female P. lloydi were determined to be infected by Leishmania using internal transcribed spacer 1 and heat shock protein 70 kDa PCR-RFLP. The two female sandflies, both of which fed on rodents/marsupials, were further characterised as infected with Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. These results constitute an important step towards applying methodologies based on cytB amplification as a tool for identifying the food sources of female sandflies.

Online catalogue of the Coleção de Flebotomíneos (FIOCRUZ/COLFLEB), a biological collection of American sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae, Phlebotominae) held at Fiocruz Minas, Brazil.

The Coleção de Flebotomíneos ("Phlebotomine Collection"; FIOCRUZ/COLFLEB) held at Fiocruz Minas is a curated biological collection comprising approximately 80 000 individual specimens of 370 species of sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae, Phlebotominae). These were mostly collected from the Americas in the last 80 years by entomologists interested in understanding and controlling the vector-borne disease leishmaniases. Since 2010, the metadata of each biological specimen held in FIOCRUZ/COLFLEB, including the back catalogue of those deposited in previous decades, has been digitized. Here, we present the resulting electronic catalog containing records for 72,624 of the specimens, including all of the available provenance information associated with each specimen. The catalog is published online through the speciesLink network and the Sistema de Informação sobre a Biodiversidade Brasileira (SiBBr).

Phlebotominae Fauna (Diptera: Psychodidae) and Molecular Detection of Leishmania (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in Urban Caves of Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Sand flies are often collected in urban areas, which has several implications for the risk of transmission of Leishmania Ross, 1903, to humans and other mammals. Given this scenario, we describe the sand fly fauna of caves and their surroundings in Mangabeiras Municipal Park (MMP) and Paredão Serra do Curral Park (PSCP), both located in the urban area of Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil, an endemic focus of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis. Collections were conducted monthly from November 2011 to October 2012, using CDC light traps exposed for two consecutive nights in four caves and their surroundings. Nonsystematized collections using Shannon traps and active searches were also performed around the caves. The presence of Leishmania DNA in collected female sand flies was evaluated by ITS1-PCR. A total of 857 sand flies representing fourteen species were collected in MMP, of which Evandromyia edwardsi (Mangabeira, 1941) was the most abundant. Leishmania amazonensis was detected in Brumptomyia nitzulescui (Costa Lima, 1932) and Ev. edwardsi, with the latter also having Leishmania braziliensis, Leishmania infantum, and Leishmania sp. A total of 228 sand flies representing four species were collected in PSCP, of which Sciopemyia microps (Mangabeira, 1942) was the most abundant. No females from PSCP were positive for Leishmania-DNA. Studies aimed at describing sand fly faunas of cave environments and detecting Leishmania are essential to understanding the relationship between these insects and this ecotope and assessing and monitoring areas that may pose risks to the health of visitors and employees.

Sand fly bioecological aspects and risk mapping of leishmaniasis by geographical information systems approach in a mineral exploration area of Brazil.

Epidemiological studies of leishmaniasis in areas of great human influence and environmental change serve as important tools for the implementation of effective control plans. Mining is currently a major economic activity in Brazil with the municipality of Pains, in the state of Minas Gerais, being one of the main lime producing municipalities in the country. This study aimed to map areas of potential transmission risks within the municipality of Pains using an epidemiological approach in association with the ecological study of sand flies. Twelve samplings carried out between May 2015 and April 2016 collected a total of 12,728 sandflies, comprising 2,854 females (22.42%) and 9,874 males (77.58%), of 20 species belonging to ten genera. The most abundant species was Lutzomyia longipalpis (80%). Leishmania DNA was detected in seven pools of female sand flies with an infection rate of 0.37%. Geoprocessing and the use of maps revealed that vector sand flies are distributed throughout the urban area, as are cases of canine and human leishmaniasis. However, the greatest abundances of sand flies were at sampling points at the border of the urban area. Higher densities of sand flies and the presence of Leishmania DNA may be correlated with extensive degradation by limestone mining. Integrated and multidisciplinary research approaches are necessary to better understand how the impacts of environmental change influence these insect vectors of leishmaniasis.

Publishing data to support the fight against human vector-borne diseases.

Vector-borne diseases are responsible for more than 17% of human cases of infectious diseases. In most situations, effective control of debilitating and deadly vector-bone diseases (VBDs), such as malaria, dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever, Zika and Chagas requires up-to-date, robust and comprehensive information on the presence, diversity, ecology, bionomics and geographic spread of the organisms that carry and transmit the infectious agents. Huge gaps exist in the information related to these vectors, creating an essential need for campaigns to mobilise and share data. The publication of data papers is an effective tool for overcoming this challenge. These peer-reviewed articles provide scholarly credit for researchers whose vital work of assembling and publishing well-described, properly-formatted datasets often fails to receive appropriate recognition. To address this, GigaScience's sister journal GigaByte partnered with the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) to publish a series of data papers, with support from the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), hosted by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Here we outline the initial results of this targeted approach to sharing data and describe its importance for controlling VBDs and improving public health.

Anthropogenic influence on the distribution, abundance and diversity of sandfly species (Diptera: Phlebotominae: Psychodidae), vectors of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Panama.

In Panama, species of the genus Lutzomyia are vectors of American cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL). There is no recent ecological information that may be used to develop tools for the control of this disease. Thus, the goal of this study was to determine the composition, distribution and diversity of Lutzomyia species that serve as vectors of ACL. Sandfly sampling was conducted in forests, fragmented forests and rural environments, in locations with records of ACL. Lutzomyia gomezi, Lutzomyia panamensis and Lutzomyia trapidoi were the most widely distributed and prevalent species. Analysis of each sampling point showed that the species abundance and diversity were greatest at points located in the fragmented forest landscape. However, when the samples were grouped according to the landscape characteristics of the locations, there was a greater diversity of species in the rural environment locations. The Kruskal Wallis analysis of species abundance found that Lu. gomezi and Lu. trapidoi were associated with fragmented environments, while Lu. panamensis, Lutzomyia olmeca bicolor and Lutzomyia ylephiletor were associated with forested environments. Therefore, we suggest that human activity influences the distribution, composition and diversity of the vector species responsible for leishmaniasis in Panama.

Report of Lutzomyia longipalpis (Lutz & Neiva, 1912) (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) in a cutaneous-leishmaniasis-endemic area of Panama.

Lutzomyia longipalpis is the primary vector of the parasite responsible for visceral leishmaniasis in the Americas. In the present study, Lu. longipalpis was found in a domiciliary area in Limón, a district in Capira, a region in which cutaneous leishmaniasis is endemic in Panama. Previously, this species has been found in a humid forest in this same region. Finding Lu. longipalpis in domiciliary areas indicates that this species may be adapting to new habitats and that it may play a role in the transmission of leishmaniasis in Panama.

The sand fly (Diptera: Psychodidae) fauna of the urban area of Lassance, Northeast Minas Gerais, Brazil.

The present study aimed to check the sand flies' fauna on the municipality of Lassance, Minas Gerais, Brazil and detect the presence of Leishmania DNA on the female captured and determine the risk areas of the municipality. Sand flies were collected monthly from May 2018 to April 2019 using automatic light traps for 3 consecutive nights. Eight houses were selected as sample points due its previous reports of tegumentary leishmaniasis and/or canine leishmaniasis. The sand fly's fauna found on the present study it's represented by several medical importance species and the most abundant species found were Lutzomyia longipalpis (77.09%) and Nyssomyia intermedia (10.06%). Leishmania infantum DNA was detected in a pool of Lu. longipalpis resulting on a 2.81% of infection rate. By the frequency of the two most abundant species on this study, we developed a risk area map and it draws attention to sample point 6 due to disparate abundance of sand flies at this site (81.81%). Statistical overview shows Lu. longipalpis as dominant species and, still, Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling analysis reveal high similarity on fauna's diversity on the study area. Our findings suggest that the diversity of sand flies from the municipality of Lassance may promote the circulation of Leishmania infantum parasites putting in risk the habitants and other mammal's species. Still, our study reinforces the necessity of specific studies focused on breed sites of phlebotomine and its' ecology to expand the knowledge about the behaviour of this group of insects applying directly to leishmaniases' epidemiology.