Differential Development of Facial and Hind Paw Allodynia in a Nitroglycerin-Induced Mouse Model of Chronic Migraine: Role of Capsaicin Sensitive Primary Afferents.

Despite the relatively high prevalence of migraine or headache, the pathophysiological mechanisms triggering headache-associated peripheral hypersensitivities, are unknown. Since nitric oxide (NO) is well known as a causative factor in the pathogenesis of migraine or migraine-associated hypersensitivities, a mouse model has been established using systemic administration of the NO donor, nitroglycerin (NTG). Here we tried to investigate the time course development of facial or hindpaw hypersensitivity after repetitive NTG injection. NTG (10 mg/kg) was administrated to mice every other day for nine days. Two hours post-injection, NTG produced acute mechanical and heat hypersensitivity in the hind paws. By contrast, cold allodynia, but not mechanical hypersensitivity, occurred in the facial region. Moreover, this hindpaws mechanical hypersensitivity and the facial cold allodynia was progressive and long-lasting. We subsequently examined whether the depletion of capsaicin-sensitive primary afferents (CSPAs) with resiniferatoxin (RTX, 0.02 mg/kg) altered these peripheral hypersensitivities in NTG-treated mice. RTX pretreatment did not affect the NTG-induced mechanical allodynia in the hind paws nor the cold allodynia in the facial region, but it did inhibit the development of hind paw heat hyperalgesia. Similarly, NTG injection produced significant hindpaw mechanical allodynia or facial cold allodynia, but not heat hyperalgesia in transient receptor potential type V1 (TRPV1) knockout mice. These findings demonstrate that different peripheral hypersensitivities develop in the face versus hindpaw regions in a mouse model of repetitive NTG-induced migraine, and that these hindpaw mechanical hypersensitivity and facial cold allodynia are not mediated by the activation of CSPAs.

A critical role of spinal Shank2 proteins in NMDA-induced pain hypersensitivity.

Background Self-injurious behaviors (SIBs) are devastating traits in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Although deficits in pain sensation might be one of the contributing factors underlying the development of SIBs, the mechanisms have yet to be addressed. Recently, the Shank2 synaptic protein has been considered to be a key component in ASD, and mutations of SHANK2 gene induce the dysfunction of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, suggesting a link between Shank2 and NMDA receptors in ASD. Given that spinal NMDA receptors play a pivotal role in pain hypersensitivity, we investigated the possible role of Shank2 in nociceptive hypersensitivity by examining changes in spontaneous pain following intrathecal NMDA injection in S hank2-/- ( Shank2 knock-out, KO) mice. Results Intrathecal NMDA injection evoked spontaneous nociceptive behaviors. These NMDA-induced nociceptive responses were significantly reduced in Shank2 KO mice. We also observed a significant decrease of NMDA currents in the spinal dorsal horn of Shank2 KO mice. Subsequently, we examined whether mitogen-activated protein kinase or AKT signaling is involved in this reduced pain behavior in Shank2 KO mice because the NMDA receptor is closely related to these signaling molecules. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry revealed that spinally administered NMDA increased the expression of a phosphorylated form of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK) which was significantly reduced in Shank2 KO mice. However, p38, JNK, or AKT were not changed by NMDA administration. The ERK inhibitor, PD98059, decreased NMDA-induced spontaneous pain behaviors in a dose-dependent manner in wild-type mice. Moreover, it was found that the NMDA-induced increase in p-ERK was primarily colocalized with Shank2 proteins in the spinal cord dorsal horn. Conclusion Shank2 protein is involved in spinal NMDA receptor-mediated pain, and mutations of Shank2 may suppress NMDA-ERK signaling in spinal pain transmission. This study provides new clues into the mechanisms underlying pain deficits associated with SIB and deserves further study in patients with ASD.

Clonidine, an alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist relieves mechanical allodynia in oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic mice; potentiation by spinal p38 MAPK inhibition without motor dysfunction and hypotension.

Cancer chemotherapy with platinum-based antineoplastic agents including oxaliplatin frequently results in a debilitating and painful peripheral neuropathy. We evaluated the antinociceptive effects of the alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist, clonidine on oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain. Specifically, we determined if (i) the intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of clonidine reduces mechanical allodynia in mice with an oxaliplatin-induced neuropathy and (ii) concurrent inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity by the p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580 enhances clonidine's antiallodynic effect. Clonidine (0.01-0.1 mg kg(-1), i.p.), with or without SB203580(1-10 nmol, intrathecal) was administered two weeks after oxaliplatin injection(10 mg kg(-1), i.p.) to mice. Mechanical withdrawal threshold, motor coordination and blood pressure were measured. Postmortem expression of p38 MAPK and ERK as well as their phosphorylated forms(p-p38 and p-ERK) were quantified 30 min or 4 hr after drug injection in the spinal cord dorsal horn of treated and control mice. Clonidine dose-dependently reduced oxaliplatin-induced mechanical allodynia and spinal p-p38 MAPK expression, but not p-ERK. At 0.1 mg kg(-1), clonidine also impaired motor coordination and decreased blood pressure. A 10 nmol dose of SB203580 alone significantly reduced mechanical allodynia and p-p38 MAPK expression, while a subeffective dose(3 nmol) potentiated the antiallodynic effect of 0.03 mg kg(-1) clonidine and reduced the increased p-p38 MAPK. Coadministration of SB203580 and 0.03 mg kg(-1) clonidine decreased allodynia similar to that of 0.10 mg kg(-1) clonidine, but without significant motor or vascular effects. These findings demonstrate that clonidine treatment reduces oxaliplatin-induced mechanical allodynia. The concurrent administration of SB203580 reduces the dosage requirements for clonidine, thereby alleviating allodynia without producing undesirable motor or cardiovascular effects.

Spinal sigma-1 receptor activation increases the production of D-serine in astrocytes which contributes to the development of mechanical allodynia in a mouse model of neuropathic pain.

We have previously demonstrated that activation of the spinal sigma-1 receptor (Sig-1R) plays an important role in the development of mechanical allodynia (MA) via secondary activation of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. Sig-1Rs have been shown to localize to astrocytes, and blockade of Sig-1Rs inhibits the pathologic activation of astrocytes in neuropathic mice. However, the mechanism by which Sig-1R activation in astrocytes modulates NMDA receptors in neurons is currently unknown. d-serine, synthesized from l-serine by serine racemase (Srr) in astrocytes, is an endogenous co-agonist for the NMDA receptor glycine site and can control NMDA receptor activity. Here, we investigated the role of d-serine in the development of MA induced by spinal Sig-1R activation in chronic constriction injury (CCI) mice. The production of d-serine and Srr expression were both significantly increased in the spinal cord dorsal horn post-CCI surgery. Srr and d-serine were only localized to astrocytes in the superficial dorsal horn, while d-serine was also localized to neurons in the deep dorsal horn. Moreover, we found that Srr exists in astrocytes that express Sig-1Rs. The CCI-induced increase in the levels of d-serine and Srr was attenuated by sustained intrathecal treatment with the Sig-1R antagonist, BD-1047 during the induction phase of neuropathic pain. In behavioral experiments, degradation of endogenous d-serine with DAAO, or selective blockade of Srr by LSOS, effectively reduced the development of MA, but not thermal hyperalgesia in CCI mice. Finally, BD-1047 administration inhibited the development of MA and this inhibition was reversed by intrathecal treatment with exogenous d-serine. These findings demonstrate for the first time that the activation of Sig-1Rs increases the expression of Srr and d-serine in astrocytes. The increased production of d-serine induced by CCI ultimately affects dorsal horn neurons that are involved in the development of MA in neuropathic mice.

Acid evoked thermal hyperalgesia involves peripheral P2Y1 receptor mediated TRPV1 phosphorylation in a rodent model of thrombus induced ischemic pain.

BACKGROUND: We previously developed a thrombus-induced ischemic pain (TIIP) animal model, which was characterized by chronic bilateral mechanical allodynia without thermal hyperalgesia (TH). On the other hand we had shown that intraplantar injection of acidic saline facilitated ATP-induced pain, which did result in the induction of TH in normal rats. Because acidic pH and increased ATP are closely associated with ischemic conditions, this study is designed to: (1) examine whether acidic saline injection into the hind paw causes the development of TH in TIIP, but not control, animals; and (2) determine which peripheral mechanisms are involved in the development of this TH. RESULTS: Repeated intraplantar injection of pH 4.0 saline, but not pH 5.5 and 7.0 saline, for 3 days following TIIP surgery resulted in the development of TH. After pH 4.0 saline injections, protein levels of hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and carbonic anhydrase II (CA II) were elevated in the plantar muscle indicating that acidic stimulation intensified ischemic insults with decreased tissue acidity. At the same time point, there were no changes in the expression of TRPV1 in hind paw skin, whereas a significant increase in TRPV1 phosphorylation (pTRPV1) was shown in acidic saline (pH 4.0) injected TIIP (AS-TIIP) animals. Moreover, intraplantar injection of chelerythrine (a PKC inhibitor) and AMG9810 (a TRPV1 antagonist) effectively alleviated the established TH. In order to investigate which proton- or ATP-sensing receptors contributed to the development of TH, amiloride (an ASICs blocker), AMG9810, TNP-ATP (a P2Xs antagonist) or MRS2179 (a P2Y1 antagonist) were pre-injected before the pH 4.0 saline. Only MRS2179 significantly prevented the induction of TH, and the increased pTRPV1 ratio was also blocked in MRS2179 injected animals. CONCLUSION: Collectively these data show that maintenance of an acidic environment in the ischemic hind paw of TIIP rats results in the phosphorylation of TRPV1 receptors via a PKC-dependent pathway, which leads to the development of TH mimicking what occurs in chronic ischemic patients with severe acidosis. More importantly, peripheral P2Y1 receptors play a pivotal role in this process, suggesting a novel peripheral mechanism underlying the development of TH in these patients.

Spinal sigma-1 receptors activate NADPH oxidase 2 leading to the induction of pain hypersensitivity in mice and mechanical allodynia in neuropathic rats.

We have recently demonstrated that spinal sigma-1 receptors (Sig-1Rs) mediate pain hypersensitivity in mice and neuropathic pain in rats. In this study, we examine the role of NADPH oxidase 2 (Nox2)-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) on Sig-1R-induced pain hypersensitivity and the induction of chronic neuropathic pain. Neuropathic pain was produced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the right sciatic nerve in rats. Mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia were evaluated in mice and CCI-rats. Western blotting and dihydroethidium (DHE) staining were performed to assess the changes in Nox2 activation and ROS production in spinal cord, respectively. Direct activation of spinal Sig-1Rs with the Sig-1R agonist, PRE084 induced mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, which were dose-dependently attenuated by pretreatment with the ROS scavenger, NAC or the Nox inhibitor, apocynin. PRE084 also induced an increase in Nox2 activation and ROS production, which were attenuated by pretreatment with the Sig-1R antagonist, BD1047 or apocynin. CCI-induced nerve injury produced an increase in Nox2 activation and ROS production in the spinal cord, all of which were attenuated by intrathecal administration with BD1047 during the induction phase of neuropathic pain. Furthermore, administration with BD1047 or apocynin reversed CCI-induced mechanical allodynia during the induction phase, but not the maintenance phase. These findings demonstrate that spinal Sig-1Rs modulate Nox2 activation and ROS production in the spinal cord, and ultimately contribute to the Sig-1R-induced pain hypersensitivity and the peripheral nerve injury-induced induction of chronic neuropathic pain.

Phase-specific differential regulation of mechanical allodynia in a murine model of neuropathic pain by progesterone.

Progesterone has been shown to have neuroprotective capabilities against a wide range of nervous system injuries, however there are negative clinical studies that have failed to demonstrate positive effects of progesterone therapy. Specifically, we looked into whether progesterone receptors or its metabolizing enzymes, cytochrome P450c17 and 5α-reductase, are involved in the effects of progesterone on neuropathic pain after chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve in mice. Intrathecal progesterone administration during the induction phase of chronic pain enhanced mechanical allodynia development and spinal glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression, and this enhancement was inhibited by administration of ketoconazole, a P450c17 inhibitor, but not finasteride, a 5α-reductase inhibitor. Furthermore, phospho-serine levels of P450c17 in the spinal cord were elevated on day 1 after CCI operation, but not on day 17. In contrast, intrathecal progesterone administration during the maintenance phase of chronic pain decreased the acquired pain and elevated GFAP expression; this inhibition was restored by finasteride administration, but not by ketoconazole. The modification of mechanical allodynia brought on by progesterone in CCI mice was unaffected by the administration of mifepristone, a progesterone receptor antagonist. Collectively, these findings imply that progesterone suppresses spinal astrocyte activation via 5α-reductase activity during the maintenance phase of chronic pain and has an analgesic impact on the mechanical allodynia associated with the growing neuropathy. Progesterone, however, stimulates spinal astrocytes during the induction stage of peripheral neuropathy and boosts the allodynic impact caused by CCI through early spinal P450c17 activation.

Differential modulation of neurons in the rostral ventromedial medulla by neurokinin-1 receptors.

The rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) is part of descending circuitry that modulates nociceptive processing at the level of the spinal cord. RVM output can facilitate pain transmission under certain conditions such as inflammation, and thereby contribute to hyperalgesia. Evidence suggests that substance P and activation of neurokinin-1 (NK-1) receptors in the RVM are involved in descending facilitation of nociception. We showed previously that injection of NK-1 receptor antagonists into the RVM attenuated mechanical and heat hyperalgesia produced by intraplantar injection of capsaicin. Furthermore, intraplantar injection of capsaicin excited ON cells in the RVM and inhibited ongoing activity of OFF cells. In the present studies, we therefore examined changes in responses of RVM neurons to mechanical and heat stimuli after intraplantar injection of capsaicin and determined the role of NK-1 receptors by injecting a NK-1 receptor antagonist into the RVM prior to capsaicin. After capsaicin injection, excitatory responses of ON cells and inhibitory responses of OFF cells evoked by mechanical and heat stimuli applied to the injected, but not contralateral, paw were increased. Injection of the NK-1 antagonist L-733,060 did not alter evoked responses of ON or OFF cells but attenuated the capsaicin-evoked enhanced responses of ON cells to mechanical and heat stimuli with less of an effect on the enhanced inhibitory responses of OFF cells. These data support the notion that descending facilitation from RVM contributes to hyperalgesia and that NK-1 receptors, presumably located on ON cells, play an important role in initiating descending facilitation of nociceptive transmission.

The differential effect of intrathecal Nav1.8 blockers on the induction and maintenance of capsaicin- and peripheral ischemia-induced mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia.

BACKGROUND: It has been reported that the selective blockade of Nav1.8 sodium channels could be a possible target for the development of analgesics without unwanted side effects. However, the precise role of spinal Nav1.8 in the induction and maintenance of persistent pain, e.g., mechanical allodynia (MA) and thermal hyperalgesia (TH), is not clear. We designed this study to investigate whether spinal Nav1.8 contributes to capsaicin-induced and peripheral ischemia-induced MA and TH. METHODS: The Nav1.8 blockers, A-803467 or ambroxol, were injected intrathecally either before or after intraplantar capsaicin injection. To evaluate capsaicin-induced neuronal activation in the spinal cord, we quantified the number of Fos-immunoreactive cells in the dorsal horn. In the thrombus-induced ischemic pain model, we determined the differential effect of A-803467 on the induction phase or maintenance phase of MA. RESULTS: Intrathecal injection of A-803467 (10, 30, 100 nmol) or ambroxol (241, 724, 2410 nmol) before intraplantar injection of capsaicin dose dependently prevented the induction of both MA and TH. However, posttreatment with A-803467 (100 nmol) and ambroxol (2410 nmol) did not reduce the MA that had already developed, but did significantly suppress capsaicin-induced TH. Moreover, the capsaicin-induced increase of spinal Fos-immunoreactive cells was significantly diminished by pretreatment, but not posttreatment with Nav1.8 blockers. In thrombus-induced ischemic pain rats, repetitive treatments of A-803467 during the induction period also prevented the development of MA, whereas A-803467 treatments during the maintenance period were ineffective in preventing or reducing MA. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that spinal activation of Nav1.8 mediates the early induction of MA, but not the maintenance of MA. However, both the induction and maintenance of TH are modulated by the intrathecal injection of Nav1.8 blockers. These findings suggest that early treatment with a Nav1.8 blocker can be an important factor in the clinical management of chronic MA associated with inflammatory and ischemic pain.

Effects of different electroacupuncture scheduling regimens on murine bone tumor-induced hyperalgesia: sex differences and role of inflammation.

Previous studies have shown that electroacupuncture (EA) is able to reduce hyperalgesia in rodent models of persistent pain, but very little is known about the analgesic effects and potential sex differences of different EA treatment regimens. In the present study, we examined the effects of five different EA treatments on tumor-induced hyperalgesia in male and female mice. EA applied to the ST-36 acupoint either twice weekly (EA-2X/3) beginning on postimplantation day (PID) 3 or prophylactically three times prior to implantation produced the most robust and longest lasting antinociceptive effects. EA treatment given once per week beginning at PID 7 only produced an antinociceptive effect in female animals. The analgesic effect of EA-2X/3 began earlier in males, but lasted longer in females indicating sex differences in EA. We further demonstrate that EA-2X/3 elicits a marked decrease in tumor-associated inflammation as evidenced by a significant reduction in tumor-associated neutrophils at PID 7. Moreover, EA-2X/3 produced a significant reduction in tumor-associated PGE(2) as measured in microperfusate samples. Collectively, these data provide evidence that EA-2X/3 treatment reduces tumor-induced hyperalgesia, which is associated with a decrease in tumor-associated inflammation and PGE(2) concentration at the tumor site suggesting possible mechanisms by which EA reduces tumor nociception.

Intrathecal interleukin-1ß decreases sigma-1 receptor expression in spinal astrocytes in a murine model of neuropathic pain.

The sigma-1 receptor (Sig-1R) plays an important role in spinal pain transmission by increasing phosphorylation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor GluN1 subunit (pGluN1). As a result Sig-1R has been suggested as a novel therapeutic target for prevention of chronic pain. Here we investigated whether interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) modulates the expression of the Sig-1R in spinal astrocytes during the early phase of nerve injury, and whether this modulation affects spinal pGluN1 expression and the development of neuropathic pain following chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve. Repeated intrathecal (i.t.) administration of IL-1ß from days 0-3 post-surgery significantly reduced the increased pGluN1 expression at the Ser896 and Ser897 sites in the ipsilateral spinal cord, as well as, the development of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in the ipsilateral hind paw of CCI mice, which were restored by co-administration of IL-1 receptor antagonist with IL-1ß. Sciatic nerve injury increased the expression of Sig-1R in astrocytes of the ipsilateral spinal cord, and this increase was suppressed by i.t. administration of IL-1ß. Agonistic stimulation of the Sig-1R with PRE084 restored pGluN1 expression and the development of mechanical allodynia that were originally suppressed by IL-1ß in CCI mice. Collectively these results demonstrate that IL-1ß administration during the induction phase of neuropathic pain produces an analgesic effect on neuropathic pain development by controlling the expression of Sig-1R in spinal astrocytes.

Activation of spinal alpha-2 adrenoceptors, but not mu-opioid receptors, reduces the intrathecal N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced increase in spinal NR1 subunit phosphorylation and nociceptive behaviors in the rat.

BACKGROUND: A previous study from our laboratories showed that a significant reduction in spinal N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor NR1 subunit phosphorylation (pNR1) is associated with the antiallodynic effect produced by intrathecal (IT) injection of the alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist, clonidine, in neuropathic rats. In this study, we determined whether the spontaneous pain and increased pNR1 expression induced by NMDA injection are reduced by IT injection of either clonidine or the mu-opioid receptor agonist, [D-Ala2, NMe-Phe4, Gly-ol5]-enkephalin (DAMGO). METHODS: We examined the effect of clonidine (20 microg/rat) or DAMGO (1 microg/rat) injection on IT NMDA-induced spontaneous nociceptive behavior and pNR1 expression in the spinal dorsal horn. We also determined whether the effect of clonidine is mediated by alpha-2A or alpha-2C adrenoceptors. Finally, rat spinal cords were immunohistochemically processed for double staining of pNR1 and alpha-2A or alpha-2C adrenoceptors or mu-opioid receptors. RESULTS: The NMDA-induced increase in both pNR1 expression and nociceptive behavior was significantly reduced by IT clonidine but not DAMGO. This analgesic effect of clonidine was blocked by administration of either an alpha-2A (BRL44408, 30 microg/rat) or an alpha-2C (JP-1302, 50 microg/rat) adrenoceptor antagonist. In addition, immunocytochemistry revealed that spinal pNR1 immunoreactive cells co-contain alpha-2A and alpha-2C adrenoceptors. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that the IT NMDA-induced increase in pNR1 expression and nociceptive behavior is significantly reduced by activation of alpha-2 adrenoceptors, but not mu-opioid receptors, in the spinal cord dorsal horn. Furthermore, these findings suggest that the modulation of spinal NR1 phosphorylation is linked to the effect of IT clonidine on postsynaptic neuronal activity.

Secretion of MCP-1 and other paracrine factors in a novel tumor-bone coculture model.

BACKGROUND: The bone-tumor microenvironment encompasses unique interactions between the normal cells of the bone and marrow cavity and the malignant cells from a primary or metastasized cancer. A multitude of paracrine factors within this microenvironment such as the growth factor, TGF-beta, and the chemokine, MCP-1, are secreted by many of these cell types. These factors can act in concert to modulate normal and malignant cell proliferation, malignant cell migration and invasion and, often, mediate bone cancer pain. Although many valuable in vitro and in vivo models exist, identifying the relevant paracrine factors and deciphering their interactions is still a challenge. The aim of our study is to test an ex vivo coculture model that will allow monitoring of the expression, release and regulation of paracrine factors during interactions of an intact femur explant and tumor cells. METHODS: Intact or marrow-depleted neonatal mouse femurs and select murine and human sarcoma or carcinoma cell lines were incubated singly or in coculture in specialized well plates. Viability of the bone and cells was determined by immunohistochemical stains, microscopy and marrow cytopreps. Secretion and mRNA expression of paracrine factors was quantitated by ELISA and real-time RT-PCR. RESULTS: Compartments of the bone were optimally viable for up to 48 h in culture and tumor cells for up to 4 days. Bone was the major contributor of TGF-beta and MMP2 whereas both bone and sarcoma cells secreted the chemokine MCP-1 in cocultures. Synergistic interaction between the femur and sarcoma resulted in enhanced MCP-1 secretion and expression in cocultures and was dependent on the presence of the hematopoietic component of the bone as well as other bone cells. In contrast, coculturing with breast carcinoma cells resulted in reduction of TGF-beta and MCP-1 secretion from the bone. CONCLUSION: These studies illustrate the feasibility of this model to examine paracrine interactions between intact bone and tumor cells. Further study of unique regulation of MCP-1 secretion and signaling between these cell types in different types of cancer will be possible using this simulated microenvironment.

Inhibition of cytochrome P450c17 reduces spinal astrocyte activation in a mouse model of neuropathic pain via regulation of p38 MAPK phosphorylation.

We have recently demonstrated that the neurosteroid-metabolizing enzyme, cytochrome P450c17 is increased in spinal astrocytes contributing to the development of mechanical allodynia in chronic constriction injury (CCI)-induced neuropathic mice. However, the mechanisms by which spinal P450c17 modulates pathological changes in astrocytes remain unclear. In this study we investigated whether P450c17 modulates astrocyte activation and whether this process is mediated by spinal p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation ultimately leading to the development of mechanical allodynia in CCI mice. Sciatic nerve injury induced a significant increase in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression in the superficial dorsal horn (SDH, laminae I-II) and nucleus proprius (NP, laminae III-IV) regions of the spinal cord dorsal horn. Repeated daily (from days 0-3 post-surgery) intrathecal administration of the P450c17 inhibitor, ketoconazole (10 nmol) significantly inhibited the CCI-induced increase in GFAP-immunoreactivity, but had no effect on the CCI-induced increase in Iba-1-immunoreactivity. In addition, intrathecal administration of ketoconazole significantly inhibited the CCI-induced increase in p38 phosphorylation, while the levels of ERK and JNK phosphorylation remained unchanged. The CCI-induced development of mechanical allodynia was attenuated by administration of either ketoconazole (10 nmol) or the p38 MAPK inhibitor, SB203580 (5 nmol). Administration of a sub-effective dose of SB203580 (0.5 nmol) potentiated the pharmacological effect of ketoconazole (1 nmol) on spinal GFAP-immunostaining, as well as, the development of mechanical allodynia following CCI. Collectively these data suggest that spinal P450c17 activates astrocytes via p38 phosphorylation, ultimately leading to the development of mechanical allodynia in a model of peripheral neuropathy.

Spinal Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II Increases Neurosteroid-metabolizing Cytochrome P450c17 Expression in a Rodent Model of Neuropathic Pain.

We have previously demonstrated that the neurosteroid dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) induces functional potentiation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors via increases in phosphorylation of NMDA receptor GluN1 subunit (pGluN1). However, the modulatory mechanisms responsible for the expression of the DHEA-synthesizing enzyme, cytochrome P450c17 following peripheral nerve injury have yet to be examined. Here we determined whether oxidative stress induced by the spinal activation of nitric oxide synthase type II (NOS-II) modulates the expression of P450c17 and whether this process contributes to the development of neuropathic pain in rats. Chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve induced a significant increase in the expression of NOS-II in microglial cells and NO levels in the lumbar spinal cord dorsal horn at postoperative day 5. Intrathecal administration of the NOS-II inhibitor, L-NIL during the induction phase of neuropathic pain (postoperative days 0~5) significantly reduced the CCI-induced development of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia. Sciatic nerve injury increased the expression of PKCand PKA-dependent pGluN1 as well as the mRNA and protein levels of P450c17 in the spinal cord at postoperative day 5, and these increases were suppressed by repeated administration of L-NIL. Co-administration of DHEAS together with L-NIL restored the development of neuropathic pain and pGluN1 that were originally inhibited by L-NIL administration alone. Collectively these results provide strong support for the hypothesis that activation of NOS-II increases the mRNA and protein levels of P450c17 in the spinal cord, ultimately leading to the development of central sensitization and neuropathic pain induced by peripheral nerve injury.

Inhibition of Cytochrome P450 Side-Chain Cleavage Attenuates the Development of Mechanical Allodynia by Reducing Spinal D-Serine Production in a Murine Model of Neuropathic Pain.

Research indicates that neurosteroids are locally synthesized in the central nervous system and play an important modulatory role in nociception. While the neurosteroidogenic enzyme, cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc), is the initiating enzyme of steroidogenesis, P450scc has not been examined under the pathophysiological conditions associated with peripheral neuropathy. Thus, we investigated whether chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve increases the expression of P450scc in the spinal cord and whether this increase modulates serine racemase (Srr) expression and D-serine production contributing to the development of neuropathic pain. CCI increased the immunoreactivity of P450scc in astrocytes of the ipsilateral lumbar spinal cord dorsal horn. Intrathecal administration of the P450scc inhibitor, aminoglutethimide, during the induction phase of neuropathic pain (days 0 to 3 post-surgery) significantly suppressed the CCI-induced development of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, the increased expression of astrocyte Srr in both the total and cytosol levels, and the increases in D-serine immunoreactivity at day 3 post-surgery. By contrast, intrathecal administration of aminoglutethimide during the maintenance phase of pain (days 14 to 17 post-surgery) had no effect on the developed neuropathic pain nor the expression of spinal Srr and D-serine immunoreactivity at day 17 post-surgery. Intrathecal administration of exogenous D-serine during the induction phase of neuropathic pain (days 0 to 3 post-surgery) restored the development of mechanical allodynia, but not the thermal hyperalgesia, that were suppressed by aminoglutethimide administration. Collectively, these results demonstrate that spinal P450scc increases the expression of astrocyte Srr and D-serine production, ultimately contributing to the development of mechanical allodynia induced by peripheral nerve injury.

nNOS-PSD95 interactions activate the PKC-ε isoform leading to increased GluN1 phosphorylation and the development of neuropathic mechanical allodynia in mice.

It has been suggested that interactions of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) with postsynaptic density 95 (PSD95) play important roles in the development of chronic neuropathic pain. Here we examine the possible role of nNOS-PSD95 interactions in central sensitization as represented by phosphorylation of the NMDA receptor GluN1 subunit (pGluN1) in mice with chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve. Intrathecal administration of the nNOS-PSD95 interactions inhibitor, IC87201 on post-operative days 0-3 significantly reduced the CCI-induced increase in total NO levels in the lumbar spinal cord dorsal horn. IC87201 administration on post-operative days 0-3 also attenuated the CCI-induced development of mechanical allodynia (MA) and PKC-dependent (Ser896) pGluN1. Sciatic nerve injury elicited a significant translocation of the PKC-ε isoform from the cytosol to the membrane fraction in the lumbar spinal cord dorsal horn on day 3 post-CCI surgery. Administration of IC87201 significantly inhibited this translocation of PKC-ε, while the expression of PKC-α and -ξ in the cytosol and membrane fractions was unaffected by sciatic nerve injury or injection of IC87201. Furthermore, administration of the PKC-ε inhibitor, εV1-2 on post-operative days 0-3 attenuated the CCI-induced development of MA and pGluN1. Collectively these results demonstrate that spinal nNOS-PSD95 interactions play an important role in PKC-dependent GluN1 phosphorylation via activation of the PKC-ε isoform, and ultimately contributes to the development of MA in peripheral neuropathy.

Spinal Interleukin-1ß Inhibits Astrocyte Cytochrome P450c17 Expression Which Controls the Development of Mechanical Allodynia in a Mouse Model of Neuropathic Pain.

We have recently demonstrated that sciatic nerve injury increases the expression of spinal cytochrome P450c17, a key neurosteroidogenic enzyme, which plays a critical role in the development of peripheral neuropathic pain. However, the modulatory mechanisms responsible for the expression of spinal P450c17 have yet to be examined. Here we investigated the possible involvement of interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) in altering P450c17 expression during the induction phase of neuropathic pain. Neuropathic pain was produced by chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the right sciatic nerve in mice and mechanical allodynia was evaluated in the hind paws using a von-Frey filament (0.16 g). Western blotting and immunohistochemistry were performed to assess the expression of spinal IL-1ß, interleukin-1 receptor type 1 (IL-1R1), P450c17, and GFAP. Spinal IL-1ß was significantly increased on day 1 post-surgery and its receptor, IL-1R1 was expressed in GFAP-positive astrocytes. Intrathecal administration of the recombinant interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra, 20 ng) on days 0 and 1 post-surgery enhanced GFAP expression on day 1 post-surgery and induced an early increase in P450c17 expression in astrocytes, but not in neurons. Administration of IL-1ß (10 ng) on days 0 and 1 post-surgery blocked the enhancement of both spinal P450c17 and GFAP expression induced by IL-1ra (20 ng) administration. Intrathecal administration of IL-1ra (20 ng) on days 0 to 3 post-surgery also facilitated the CCI-induced development of mechanical allodynia, and this early developed pain was dose-dependently attenuated by the administration of the P450c17 inhibitor, ketoconazole (1, 3, or 10 nmol) or the astrocyte metabolic inhibitor, fluorocitrate (0.01, 0.03, or 0.1 nmol). These results demonstrate that early increases in spinal IL-1ß temporally inhibit astrocyte P450c17 expression and astrocyte activation ultimately controlling the development of mechanical allodynia induced by peripheral nerve injury. These findings imply that spinal IL-1ß plays an important role as an early, but transient, control mechanism in the development of peripheral neuropathic pain via the inhibition of astrocyte P450c17 expression and astrocyte activation.

Spinal cytochrome P450c17 plays a key role in the development of neuropathic mechanical allodynia: Involvement of astrocyte sigma-1 receptors.

While evidence indicates that sigma-1 receptors (Sig-1Rs) play an important role in the induction of peripheral neuropathic pain, there is limited understanding of the role that the neurosteroidogenic enzymes, which produce Sig-1R endogenous ligands, play during the development of neuropathic pain. We examined whether sciatic nerve injury upregulates the neurosteroidogenic enzymes, cytochrome P450c17 and 3ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3ß-HSD), which modulate the expression and/or activation of Sig-1Rs leading to the development of peripheral neuropathic pain. Chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve induced a significant increase in the expression of P450c17, but not 3ß-HSD, in the ipsilateral lumbar spinal cord dorsal horn at postoperative day 3. Intrathecal administration of the P450c17 inhibitor, ketoconazole during the induction phase of neuropathic pain (day 0 to day 3 post-surgery) significantly reduced the development of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in the ipsilateral hind paw. However, administration of the 3ß-HSD inhibitor, trilostane had no effect on the development of neuropathic pain. Sciatic nerve injury increased astrocyte Sig-1R expression as well as dissociation of Sig-1Rs from BiP in the spinal cord. These increases were suppressed by administration of ketoconazole, but not by administration of trilostane. Co-administration of the Sig-1R agonist, PRE084 restored the development of mechanical allodynia originally suppressed by the ketoconazole administration. However, ketoconazole-induced inhibition of thermal hyperalgesia was not affected by co-administration of PRE084. Collectively these results demonstrate that early activation of P450c17 modulates the expression and activation of astrocyte Sig-1Rs, ultimately contributing to the development of mechanical allodynia induced by peripheral nerve injury.

Chemical interactions between fibrosarcoma cancer cells and sensory neurons contribute to cancer pain.

In an experimental model of cancer pain, the hyperalgesia that occurs with osteolytic tumor growth is associated with the sensitization of nociceptors. We examined functional and molecular changes in small-diameter dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons to determine cellular mechanisms underlying this sensitization. The occurrence of a Ca2+ transient in response to either KCl (25 mM) or capsaicin (500 nM) increased in small neurons isolated from murine L3-L6 DRGs ipsilateral to fibrosarcoma cell tumors. The increased responses were associated with increased mRNA levels for the Ca2+ channel subunit alpha2delta1 and TRPV1 receptor. Pretreatment with gabapentin, an inhibitor of the alpha2delta1 subunit, blocked the increased response to KCl in vitro and the mechanical hyperalgesia in tumor-bearing mice in vivo. Similar increases in neuronal responsiveness occurred when DRG neurons from naive mice and fibrosarcoma cells were cocultured for 48 h. The CC chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) may contribute to the tumor cell-induced sensitization because CCL2 immunoreactivity was present in tumors, high levels of CCL2 peptide were present in microperfusates from tumors, and treatment of DRG neurons in vitro with CCL2 increased the amount of mRNA for the alpha2delta1 subunit. Together, our data provide strong evidence that the chemical mediator CCL2 is released from tumor cells and evokes phenotypic changes in sensory neurons, including increases in voltage-gated Ca2+ channels that likely underlie the mechanical hyperalgesia in the fibrosarcoma cancer model. More broadly, this study provides a novel in vitro model to resolve the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which tumor cells drive functional changes in nociceptors.