Publisher Correction: Natural variation in the parameters of innate immune cells is preferentially driven by genetic factors.

In the version of this article initially published, the name of one author was incorrect (James P. Santo). The correct name is James P. Di Santo. The error has been corrected in the HTML and PDF versions of the article.

Natural variation in the parameters of innate immune cells is preferentially driven by genetic factors.

The quantification and characterization of circulating immune cells provide key indicators of human health and disease. To identify the relative effects of environmental and genetic factors on variation in the parameters of innate and adaptive immune cells in homeostatic conditions, we combined standardized flow cytometry of blood leukocytes and genome-wide DNA genotyping of 1,000 healthy, unrelated people of Western European ancestry. We found that smoking, together with age, sex and latent infection with cytomegalovirus, were the main non-genetic factors that affected variation in parameters of human immune cells. Genome-wide association studies of 166 immunophenotypes identified 15 loci that showed enrichment for disease-associated variants. Finally, we demonstrated that the parameters of innate cells were more strongly controlled by genetic variation than were those of adaptive cells, which were driven by mainly environmental exposure. Our data establish a resource that will generate new hypotheses in immunology and highlight the role of innate immunity in susceptibility to common autoimmune diseases.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infects Regulatory B Cells in Human Neonates via Chemokine Receptor CX3CR1 and Promotes Lung Disease Severity.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the major cause of lower respiratory tract infections in infants and is characterized by pulmonary infiltration of B cells in fatal cases. We analyzed the B cell compartment in human newborns and identified a population of neonatal regulatory B lymphocytes (nBreg cells) that produced interleukin 10 (IL-10) in response to RSV infection. The polyreactive B cell receptor of nBreg cells interacted with RSV protein F and induced upregulation of chemokine receptor CX3CR1. CX3CR1 interacted with RSV glycoprotein G, leading to nBreg cell infection and IL-10 production that dampened T helper 1 (Th1) cytokine production. In the respiratory tract of neonates with severe RSV-induced acute bronchiolitis, RSV-infected nBreg cell frequencies correlated with increased viral load and decreased blood memory Th1 cell frequencies. Thus, the frequency of nBreg cells is predictive of the severity of acute bronchiolitis disease and nBreg cell activity may constitute an early-life host response that favors microbial pathogenesis.

Functional analysis via standardized whole-blood stimulation systems defines the boundaries of a healthy immune response to complex stimuli.

Standardization of immunophenotyping procedures has become a high priority. We have developed a suite of whole-blood, syringe-based assay systems that can be used to reproducibly assess induced innate or adaptive immune responses. By eliminating preanalytical errors associated with immune monitoring, we have defined the protein signatures induced by (1) medically relevant bacteria, fungi, and viruses; (2) agonists specific for defined host sensors; (3) clinically employed cytokines; and (4) activators of T cell immunity. Our results provide an initial assessment of healthy donor reference values for induced cytokines and chemokines and we report the failure to release interleukin-1α as a common immunological phenotype. The observed naturally occurring variation of the immune response may help to explain differential susceptibility to disease or response to therapeutic intervention. The implementation of a general solution for assessment of functional immune responses will help support harmonization of clinical studies and data sharing.

Automated flow cytometric analysis across large numbers of samples and cell types.

Multi-parametric flow cytometry is a key technology for characterization of immune cell phenotypes. However, robust high-dimensional post-analytic strategies for automated data analysis in large numbers of donors are still lacking. Here, we report a computational pipeline, called FlowGM, which minimizes operator input, is insensitive to compensation settings, and can be adapted to different analytic panels. A Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM)-based approach was utilized for initial clustering, with the number of clusters determined using Bayesian Information Criterion. Meta-clustering in a reference donor permitted automated identification of 24 cell types across four panels. Cluster labels were integrated into FCS files, thus permitting comparisons to manual gating. Cell numbers and coefficient of variation (CV) were similar between FlowGM and conventional gating for lymphocyte populations, but notably FlowGM provided improved discrimination of "hard-to-gate" monocyte and dendritic cell (DC) subsets. FlowGM thus provides rapid high-dimensional analysis of cell phenotypes and is amenable to cohort studies.

Semi-automated and standardized cytometric procedures for multi-panel and multi-parametric whole blood immunophenotyping.

Immunophenotyping by multi-parametric flow cytometry is the cornerstone technology for enumeration and characterization of immune cell populations in health and disease. Standardized procedures are essential to allow for inter-individual comparisons in the context of population based or clinical studies. Herein we report the approach taken by the Milieu Intérieur Consortium, highlighting the standardized and automated procedures used for immunophenotyping of human whole blood samples. We optimized eight-color antibody panels and procedures for staining and lysis of whole blood samples, and implemented pre-analytic steps with a semi-automated workflow using a robotic system. We report on four panels that were designed to enumerate and phenotype major immune cell populations (PMN, T, B, NK cells, monocytes and DC). This work establishes a foundation for defining reference values in healthy donors. Our approach provides robust protocols for affordable, semi-automated eight-color cytometric immunophenotyping that can be used in population-based studies and clinical trial settings.

Targeting the chemokine receptor CXCR4 with histamine analog to reduce inflammation in juvenile arthritis.

Introduction: Among immune cells, activated monocytes play a detrimental role in chronic and viral-induced inflammatory pathologies, particularly in Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA), a childhood rheumatoid arthritis (RA) disease. The uncontrolled activation of monocytes and excessive production of inflammatory factors contribute to the damage of bone-cartilage joints. Despite the moderate beneficial effect of current therapies and clinical trials, there is still a need for alternative strategies targeting monocytes to treat RA. Methods: To explore such an alternative strategy, we investigated the effects of targeting the CXCR4 receptor using the histamine analog clobenpropit (CB). Monocytes were isolated from the blood and synovial fluids of JIA patients to assess CB's impact on their production of key inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, we administered daily intraperitoneal CB treatment to arthritic mice to evaluate its effects on circulating inflammatory cytokine levels, immune cell infiltrates, joints erosion, and bone resorption, as indicators of disease progression. Results: Our findings demonstrated that CXCR4 targeting with CB significantly inhibited the spontaneous and induced-production of key inflammatory cytokines by monocytes isolated from JIA patients. Furthermore, CB treatment in a mouse model of collagen-induce arthritis resulted in a significant decrease in circulating inflammatory cytokine levels, immune cell infiltrates, joints erosion, and bone resorption, leading to a reduction in disease progression. Discussion: In conclusion, targeting CXCR4 with the small amino compound CB shows promise as a therapeutic option for chronic and viral-induced inflammatory diseases, including RA. CB effectively regulated inflammatory cytokine production of monocytes, presenting a potential targeted approach with potential advantages over current therapies. These results warrant further research and clinical trials to explore the full therapeutic potential of targeting CXCR4 with CB-like molecules in the management of various inflammatory diseases.

Characterization and analytical validation of a new antigenic rapid diagnostic test for Ebola virus disease detection.

Hemorrhagic fever outbreaks are difficult to diagnose and control in part because of a lack of low-cost and easily accessible diagnostic structures in countries where etiologic agents are present. Furthermore, initial clinical symptoms are common and shared with other endemic diseases such as malaria or typhoid fever. Current molecular diagnostic methods such as polymerase chain reaction require trained personnel and laboratory infrastructure, hindering diagnostics at the point of need, particularly in outbreak settings. Therefore, rapid diagnostic tests such as lateral flow can be broadly deployed and are typically well-suited to rapidly diagnose hemorrhagic fever viruses, such as Ebola virus. Early detection and control of Ebola outbreaks require simple, easy-to-use assays that can detect very low amount of virus in blood. Here, we developed and characterized an immunoassay test based on immunochromatography coupled to silver amplification technology to detect the secreted glycoprotein of EBOV. The glycoprotein is among the first viral proteins to be detected in blood. This strategy aims at identifying infected patients early following onset of symptoms by detecting low amount of sGP protein in blood samples. The limit of detection achieved by this sGP-targeted kit is 2.2 x 104 genome copies/ml in plasma as assayed in a monkey analytical cohort. Clinical performance evaluation showed a specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of 85.7% when evaluated with plasma samples from healthy controls and patients infected with Zaire Ebola virus from Macenta, Guinea. This rapid and accurate diagnostic test could therefore be used in endemic countries for early detection of infected individuals in point of care settings. Moreover, it could also support efficient clinical triage in hospitals or clinical centers and thus reducing transmission rates to prevent and better manage future severe outbreaks.

Type I interferon-mediated autoinflammation due to DNase II deficiency.

Microbial nucleic acid recognition serves as the major stimulus to an antiviral response, implying a requirement to limit the misrepresentation of self nucleic acids as non-self and the induction of autoinflammation. By systematic screening using a panel of interferon-stimulated genes we identify two siblings and a singleton variably demonstrating severe neonatal anemia, membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis, liver fibrosis, deforming arthropathy and increased anti-DNA antibodies. In both families we identify biallelic mutations in DNASE2, associated with a loss of DNase II endonuclease activity. We record increased interferon alpha protein levels using digital ELISA, enhanced interferon signaling by RNA-Seq analysis and constitutive upregulation of phosphorylated STAT1 and STAT3 in patient lymphocytes and monocytes. A hematological disease transcriptomic signature and increased numbers of erythroblasts are recorded in patient peripheral blood, suggesting that interferon might have a particular effect on hematopoiesis. These data define a type I interferonopathy due to DNase II deficiency in humans.