Modulation of the Blood-Brain Barrier by Sigma-1R Activation.

Sigma non-opioid intracellular receptor 1 (Sigma-1R) is an intracellular chaperone protein residing on the endoplasmic reticulum at the mitochondrial-associated membrane (MAM) region. Sigma-1R is abundant in the brain and is involved in several physiological processes as well as in various disease states. The role of Sigma-1R at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is incompletely characterized. In this study, the effect of Sigma-1R activation was investigated in vitro on rat brain microvascular endothelial cells (RBMVEC), an important component of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and in vivo on BBB permeability in rats. The Sigma-1R agonist PRE-084 produced a dose-dependent increase in mitochondrial calcium, and mitochondrial and cytosolic reactive oxygen species (ROS) in RBMVEC. PRE-084 decreased the electrical resistance of the RBMVEC monolayer, measured with the electric cell-substrate impedance sensing (ECIS) method, indicating barrier disruption. These effects were reduced by pretreatment with Sigma-1R antagonists, BD 1047 and NE 100. In vivo assessment of BBB permeability in rats indicates that PRE-084 produced a dose-dependent increase in brain extravasation of Evans Blue and sodium fluorescein brain; the effect was reduced by the Sigma-1R antagonists. Immunocytochemistry studies indicate that PRE-084 produced a disruption of tight and adherens junctions and actin cytoskeleton. The brain microcirculation was directly visualized in vivo in the prefrontal cortex of awake rats with a miniature integrated fluorescence microscope (aka, miniscope; Doric Lenses Inc.). Miniscope studies indicate that PRE-084 increased sodium fluorescein extravasation in vivo. Taken together, these results indicate that Sigma-1R activation promoted oxidative stress and increased BBB permeability.

Urotensin II promotes vagal-mediated bradycardia by activating cardiac-projecting parasympathetic neurons of nucleus ambiguus.

Urotensin II (U-II) is a cyclic undecapeptide that regulates cardiovascular function at central and peripheral sites. The functional role of U-II nucleus ambiguus, a key site controlling cardiac tone, has not been established, despite the identification of U-II and its receptor at this level. We report here that U-II produces an increase in cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration in retrogradely labeled cardiac vagal neurons of nucleus ambiguus via two pathways: (i) Ca(2+) release from the endoplasmic reticulum via inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor; and (ii) Ca(2+) influx through P/Q-type Ca(2+) channels. In addition, U-II depolarizes cultured cardiac parasympathetic neurons. Microinjection of increasing concentrations of U-II into nucleus ambiguus elicits dose-dependent bradycardia in conscious rats, indicating the in vivo activation of the cholinergic pathway controlling the heart rate. Both the in vitro and in vivo effects were abolished by the urotensin receptor antagonist, urantide. Our findings suggest that, in addition, to the previously reported increase in sympathetic outflow, U-II activates cardiac vagal neurons of nucleus ambiguus, which may contribute to cardioprotection.

Activation of GPR18 by cannabinoid compounds: a tale of biased agonism.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: GPR18 is a candidate cannabinoid receptor, but its classification as such is controversial. The rationale of the study presented herein was to consider the effects of N-arachidonoyl glycine (NAGly) and cannabinoids via differential G-protein coupled pathways, in addition to ß-arrestin signalling. Cellular localization of GPR18 receptors was also examined. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Calcium mobilization and ERK1/2 phosphorylation were quantified in a cell line stably expressing GPR18 (HEK293/GPR18 cells). In addition, using the DiscoveRx PathHunter CHO-K1 GPR18 ß-arrestin cell line, recruitment of ß-arrestin was quantified. KEY RESULTS: Concentration-dependent increases in intracellular calcium and ERK1/2 phosphorylation were observed in the presence of NAGly, abnormal cannabidiol (AbnCBD), O-1602, O-1918 and Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) in HEK293/GPR18 cells. The initial rise in intracellular calcium in the presence of NAGly, O1918 and THC was blocked by either Gα(q) or Gα(i/o) inhibition. The ERK1/2 phosphorylation was inhibited by Pertussis toxin and N-arachidonoyl-L-serine (NARAS). Recruitment of ß-arrestin in the PathHunter CHO-K1 GPR18 cell line revealed a differential pattern of GPR18 activation; of all the ligands tested, only Δ(9)-THC produced a concentration-dependent response. The localization of GPR18 receptors within the HEK293/GPR18 cells is both intracellular, and on the plasma membrane. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: These findings suggest that GPR18 activation involves several signal transduction pathways indicative of biased agonism, thereby providing a plausible explanation for the apparent discrepancies in GPR18 activation found in the literature. Additionally, the results presented herein provide further evidence for GPR18 as a candidate cannabinoid receptor.