Endogenous PGD2 acting on DP2 receptor counter regulates Schistosoma mansoni infection-driven hepatic granulomatous fibrosis.

Identifying new molecular therapies targeted at the severe hepatic fibrosis associated with the granulomatous immune response to Schistosoma mansoni infection is essential to reduce fibrosis-related morbidity/mortality in schistosomiasis. In vitro cell activation studies suggested the lipid molecule prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) as a potential pro-fibrotic candidate in schistosomal context, although corroboratory in vivo evidence is still lacking. Here, to investigate the role of PGD2 and its cognate receptor DP2 in vivo, impairment of PGD2 synthesis by HQL-79 (an inhibitor of the H-PGD synthase) or DP2 receptor inhibition by CAY10471 (a selective DP2 antagonist) were used against the fibrotic response of hepatic eosinophilic granulomas of S. mansoni infection in mice. Although studies have postulated PGD2 as a fibrogenic molecule, HQL-79 and CAY10471 amplified, rather than attenuated, the fibrotic response within schistosome hepatic granulomas. Both pharmacological strategies increased hepatic deposition of collagen fibers - an unexpected outcome accompanied by further elevation of hepatic levels of the pro-fibrotic cytokines TGF-ß and IL-13 in infected animals. In contrast, infection-induced enhanced LTC4 synthesis in the schistosomal liver was reduced after HQL-79 and CAY10471 treatments, and therefore, inversely correlated with collagen production in granulomatous livers. Like PGD2-directed maneuvers, antagonism of cysteinyl leukotriene receptors CysLT1 by MK571 also promoted enhancement of TGF-ß and IL-13, indicating a key down-regulatory role for endogenous LTC4 in schistosomiasis-induced liver fibrosis. An ample body of data supports the role of S. mansoni-driven DP2-mediated activation of eosinophils as the source of LTC4 during infection, including: (i) HQL-79 and CAY10471 impaired systemic eosinophilia, drastically decreasing eosinophils within peritoneum and hepatic granulomas of infected animals in parallel to a reduction in cysteinyl leukotrienes levels; (ii) peritoneal eosinophils were identified as the only cells producing LTC4 in PGD2-mediated S. mansoni-induced infection; (iii) the magnitude of hepatic granulomatous eosinophilia positively correlates with S. mansoni-elicited hepatic content of cysteinyl leukotrienes, and (iv) isolated eosinophils from S. mansoni-induced hepatic granuloma synthesize LTC4 in vitro in a PGD2/DP2 dependent manner. So, our findings uncover that granulomatous stellate cells-derived PGD2 by activating DP2 receptors on eosinophils does stimulate production of anti-fibrogenic cysLTs, which endogenously down-regulates the hepatic fibrogenic process of S. mansoni granulomatous reaction - an in vivo protective function which demands caution in the future therapeutic attempts in targeting PGD2/DP2 in schistosomiasis.

Mice lacking 5-lipoxygenase display motor deficits associated with cortical and hippocampal synapse abnormalities.

Neural-immune interactions are related to the synapse plasticity and other dynamic processes in the nervous system. The absence or dysfunction of cellular/molecular elements from the immune system lead to impairments in the central and peripheral nervous system with behavior consequences such as cognitive, sensory, and locomotor deficits as well as social disabilities and anxiety disturbances. Cellular interactions between immune cells such as macrophages, microglia, and neutrophils with glial or neuronal cells have been of increasing interest over the last years. However, little is known about the role of immune-derived soluble factors in the context of homeostasis of the nervous system. Leukotrienes (LTs) are lipid mediators derived from the oxidation of arachidonic acid by 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), and are classically involved in inflammation, allergies, and asthma. Here, we demonstrated that adult mice lacking 5-LO (5-LO-/-) showed motor deficits in rotarod test and increased repetitive behavior (marble burying test). These behavioral changes are accompanied by increased levels of synapse proteins (PSD95 and synaptophysin) at the motor cortex and hippocampus, but not with BDNF alterations. No changes in microglial cell density or morphology were seen in the brains of 5-LO-/- mice. Furthermore, expression of fractalkine receptor CX3CR1 was increased and of its ligand CX3CL1 was decreased in the cortex of 5-LO-/- mice. Here we provide evidence for the involvement of 5-LO products structuring synapses network with motor behavior consequences. We suggest that the absence of 5-LO products lead to modified microglial/neuron interaction, reducing microglial pruning.

Non-canonical NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-1ß signaling are necessary to L. amazonensis control mediated by P2X7 receptor and leukotriene B4.

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease affecting millions of individuals worldwide. P2X7 receptor has been linked to the elimination of Leishmania amazonensis. Biological responses evoked by P2X7 receptor activation have been well-documented, including apoptosis, phagocytosis, cytokine release, such as IL-1ß. It was demonstrated that NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-1ß signaling participated in resistance against L. amazonensis. Furthermore, our group has shown that L. amazonensis elimination through P2X7 receptor activation depended on leukotriene B4 (LTB4) production and release. Therefore, we investigated whether L. amazonensis elimination by P2X7 receptor and LTB4 involved NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-1ß signaling. We showed that macrophages from NLRP3-/-, ASC-/-, Casp-1/11-/-, gp91phox-/- , and IL-1R-/- mice treated with ATP or LTB4 did not decrease parasitic load as was observed in WT mice. When ASC-/- macrophages were treated with exogenous IL-1ß, parasite killing was noted, however, we did not see parasitic load reduction in IL-1R-/- macrophages. Similarly, macrophages from P2X7 receptor-deficient mice treated with IL-1ß also showed decreased parasitic load. In addition, when we infected Casp-11-/- macrophages, neither ATP nor LTB4 were able to reduce parasitic load, and Casp-11-/- mice were more susceptible to L. amazonensis infection than were WT mice. Furthermore, P2X7-/- L. amazonensis-infected mice locally treated with exogenous LTB4 showed resistance to infection, characterized by lower parasite load and smaller lesions compared to untreated P2X7-/- mice. A similar observation was noted when infected P2X7-/- mice were treated with IL-1ß, i.e., lower parasite load and smaller lesions compared to P2X7-/- mice. These data suggested that L. amazonensis elimination mediated by P2X7 receptor and LTB4 was dependent on non-canonical NLRP3 inflammasome activation, ROS production, and IL-1ß signaling.

Eosinophils increase macrophage ability to control intracellular Leishmania amazonensis infection via PGD2 paracrine activity in vitro.

Clinical and experimental studies have described eosinophil infiltration in Leishmania amazonensis infection sites, positioning eosinophils strategically adjacent to the protozoan-infected macrophages in cutaneous leishmaniasis. Here, by co-culturing mouse eosinophils with L. amazonensis-infected macrophages, we studied the impact of eosinophils on macrophage ability to regulate intracellular L. amazonensis infection. Eosinophils prevented the increase in amastigote numbers within macrophages by a mechanism dependent on a paracrine activity mediated by eosinophil-derived prostaglandin (PG) D2 acting on DP2 receptors. Exogenous PGD2 mimicked eosinophil-mediated effect on managing L. amazonensis intracellular infection by macrophages and therefore may function as a complementary tool for therapeutic intervention in L. amazonensis-driven cutaneous leishmaniasis.

Short-Term Regulation of FcγR-Mediated Phagocytosis by TLRs in Macrophages: Participation of 5-Lipoxygenase Products.

TLRs recognize a broad spectrum of microorganism molecules, triggering a variety of cellular responses. Among them, phagocytosis is a critical process for host defense. Leukotrienes (LTs), lipid mediators produced from 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) enzyme, increase FcγR-mediated phagocytosis. Here, we evaluated the participation of TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, and TLR9 in FcγR-mediated phagocytosis and whether this process is modulated by LTs. Rat alveolar macrophages (AMs), murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs), and peritoneal macrophages (PMs) treated with TLR2, TLR3, and TLR4 agonists, but not TLR9, enhanced IgG-opsonized sheep red blood cell (IgG-sRBC) phagocytosis. Pretreatment of AMs or BMDMs with drugs that block LT synthesis impaired the phagocytosis promoted by TLR ligands, and TLR potentiation was also abrogated in PMs and BMDMs from 5-LO-/- mice. LTB4 production induced by IgG engagement was amplified by TLR ligands, while cys-LTs were amplified by activation of TLR2 and TLR4, but not by TLR3. We also noted higher ERK1/2 phosphorylation in IgG-RBC-challenged cells when preincubated with TLR agonists. Furthermore, ERK1/2 inhibition by PD98059 reduced the phagocytic activity evoked by TLR agonists. Together, these data indicate that TLR2, TLR3, and TLR4 ligands, but not TLR9, amplify IgG-mediated phagocytosis by a mechanism which requires LT production and ERK-1/2 pathway activation.

Leukotriene B4 modulates P2X7 receptor-mediated Leishmania amazonensis elimination in murine macrophages.

ATP is an important signaling molecule in the immune system, and it is able to bind the P2X7 purinergic receptor. Recently, our group showed that ATP-treated macrophages eliminate Leishmania amazonensis. It has been reported that leukotriene B4 (LTB4) reduces the parasitic load of infected macrophages. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the P2X7 receptor can induce PLA2 activation and arachidonic acid mobilization. Based on these findings, we investigated whether LTB4 is produced upon P2X7 receptor activation and examined whether LTB4 modulates parasite elimination. Using macrophages lacking the P2X7 receptor, we observed that ATP was not able to reduce L. amazonensis load. This result suggests a role of the P2X7 purinergic receptor in parasite elimination. In addition, ATP was sufficient to induce LTB4 release from infected control macrophages but not from macrophages lacking the P2X7 receptor. Moreover, we found that ATP failed to decrease the parasitic load in 5-lipoxygenase (LO)-deficient macrophages. Treatment with the 5-LO inhibitor AA861 also impairs the ATP effect on parasitic loads. Furthermore, macrophages from 5-LO knockout mice eliminated L. amazonensis in the presence of exogenous LTB4, and macrophages obtained from P2X7 receptor knockout mice eliminated L. amazonensis when incubated with ionomycin. Finally, we demonstrated that in the presence of CP105696, an antagonist for LTB4 high-affinity receptor, ATP was not able to reduce parasitic load. These results indicate that P2X7 receptor activation leads to LTB4 formation, which is required for L. amazonensis elimination.

The influence of 5-lipoxygenase on cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in mice.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary emphysema is characterized by the loss of lung architecture. Our hypothesis is that the inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) production may be an important strategy to reduce inflammation, oxidative stress, and metalloproteinases in lung tissue resulting from cigarette smoke (CS)-induced emphysema. METHODS: 5-LO knockout (129S2-Alox5(tm1Fun)/J) and wild-type (WT) mice (129S2/SvPas) were exposed to CS for 60days. Mice exposed to ambient air were used as Controls. Oxidative, inflammatory, and proteolytic markers were analyzed. RESULTS: The alveolar diameter was decreased in CS 5-LO(-/-) mice when compared with the WT CS group. The CS exposure resulted in less pronounced pulmonary inflammation in the CS 5-LO(-/-) group. The CS 5-LO(-/-) group showed leukotriene B4 values comparable to those of the Control group. The expression of MMP-9 was decreased in the CS 5-LO(-/-) group when compared with the CS WT group. The expression of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase were decreased in the CS 5-LO(-/-) group when compared with the Control group. The protein expression of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 was reduced in the CS 5-LO(-/-) group when compared to the CS WT group. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, we show for the first time that 5-LO deficiency protects 129S2 mice against emphysema caused by CS. We suggest that the main mechanism of pathogenesis in this model involves the imbalance between proteases and antiproteases, particularly the association between MMP-9 and TIMP-1. General significance This study demonstrates the influence of 5-LO mediated oxidative stress, inflammation, and proteolytic markers in CS exposed mice.

Anti-inflammatory lipoxin A4 is an endogenous allosteric enhancer of CB1 cannabinoid receptor.

Allosteric modulation of G-protein-coupled receptors represents a key goal of current pharmacology. In particular, endogenous allosteric modulators might represent important targets of interventions aimed at maximizing therapeutic efficacy and reducing side effects of drugs. Here we show that the anti-inflammatory lipid lipoxin A(4) is an endogenous allosteric enhancer of the CB(1) cannabinoid receptor. Lipoxin A(4) was detected in brain tissues, did not compete for the orthosteric binding site of the CB(1) receptor (vs. (3)H-SR141716A), and did not alter endocannabinoid metabolism (as opposed to URB597 and MAFP), but it enhanced affinity of anandamide at the CB1 receptor, thereby potentiating the effects of this endocannabinoid both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, lipoxin A(4) displayed a CB(1) receptor-dependent protective effect against ß-amyloid (1-40)-induced spatial memory impairment in mice. The discovery of lipoxins as a class of endogenous allosteric modulators of CB(1) receptors may foster the therapeutic exploitation of the endocannabinoid system, in particular for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.

Pivotal role of the 5-lipoxygenase pathway in lung injury after experimental sepsis.

Postsepsis lung injury is a common clinical problem associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Leukotrienes (LTs) are important lipid mediators of infection and inflammation derived from the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) metabolism of arachidonate with the potential to contribute to lung damage after sepsis. To test the hypothesis that LTs are mediators of lung injury after sepsis, we assessed lung structure, inflammatory mediators, and mechanical changes after cecal ligation and puncture surgery in wild-type (WT) and 5-LO knockout (5-LO(-/-)) mice and in WT mice treated with a pharmacologic LT synthesis inhibitor (MK886) and LT receptor antagonists (CP105,696 and montelukast). Sixteen hours after surgery, WT animals exhibited severe lung injury (by histological analysis), substantial mechanical impairment (i.e., an increase in static lung elastance), an increase in neutrophil infiltration, and high levels of LTB4, cysteinyl-LTs (cys-LTs), prostaglandin E2, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, KC (CXCL1), and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (CCL2) in lung tissue and plasma. 5-LO(-/-) mice and WT mice treated with a pharmacologic 5-LO inhibitor were significantly protected from lung inflammation and injury. Selective antagonists for BLT1 or cys-LT1, the high-affinity receptors for LTB4 and cys-LTs, respectively, were insufficient to provide protection when used alone. These results point to an important role for 5-LO products in sepsis-induced lung injury and suggest that the use of 5-LO inhibitors may be of therapeutic benefit clinically.

Pulmonary antifibrotic mechanisms aspirin-triggered lipoxin A(4) synthetic analog.

No successful therapies are available for pulmonary fibrosis, indicating the need for new treatments. Lipoxins and their 15-epimers, aspirin-triggered lipoxins (ATL), present potent antiinflammatory and proresolution effects (Martins et al., J Immunol 2009;182:5374-5381). We show that ATLa, an ATL synthetic analog, therapeutically reversed a well-established pulmonary fibrotic process induced by bleomycin (BLM) in mice. We investigated the mechanisms involved in its effect and found that systemic treatment with ATLa 1 week after BLM instillation considerably reversed the inflammatory response, total collagen and collagen type 1 deposition, vascular endothelial growth factor, and transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß expression in the lung and restored surfactant protein C expression levels. ATLa also inhibited BLM-induced apoptosis and cellular accumulation in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and in the lung parenchyma as evaluated by light microscopy and flow cytometry (Ly6G(+), F4/80(+), CD11c(+), CD4(+), and B220(+) cells) assays. Moreover, ATLa inhibited the lung production of IL-1ß, IL-17, TNF-α, and TGF-ß induced by BLM-challenged mice. ATLa restored the balance of inducible nitric oxide synthase-positive and arginase-positive cells in the lungs, suggesting a prevalence of M2 versus M1 macrophages. Together, these effects improved pulmonary mechanics because ATLa treatment brought to normal levels lung resistance and elastance, which were clearly altered at 7 days after BLM challenge. Our findings support ATLa as a promising therapeutic agent to treat lung fibrosis.

Leukotriene B(4) inhibits neutrophil apoptosis via NADPH oxidase activity: redox control of NF-κB pathway and mitochondrial stability.

Leukotriene B(4), an arachidonic acid-derived lipid mediator, is a known proinflammatory agent that has a direct effect upon neutrophil physiology, inducing reactive oxygen species generation by the NADPH oxidase complex and impairing neutrophil spontaneous apoptosis, which in turn may corroborate to the onset of chronic inflammation. Despite those facts, a direct link between inhibition of neutrophil spontaneous apoptosis and NADPH oxidase activation by leukotriene B(4) has not been addressed so far. In this study, we aim to elucidate the putative role of NADPH oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species in leukotriene B(4)-induced anti-apoptotic effect. Our results indicate that NADPH oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species are critical to leukotriene B(4) pro-survival effect on neutrophils. This effect also relies on redox modulation of nuclear factor kappaB signaling pathway. We have also observed that LTB(4)-induced Bad degradation and mitochondrial stability require NADPH oxidase activity. All together, our results strongly suggest that LTB(4)-induced anti-apoptotic effect in neutrophils occurs in a reactive oxygen species-dependent manner. We do believe that a better knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying neutrophil spontaneous apoptosis may contribute to the development of more successful strategies to control chronic inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis.

Sepsis-surviving mice are more susceptible to a secondary kidney insult.

OBJECTIVE: It is well known that sepsis causes damage in different organs, including kidneys. However, few studies have been conducted on the magnitude of the long-term effects of sepsis on the surviving population, in particular, in relation to kidney disease. In this study, we examined the impact of long-term effects of sepsis on a second kidney insult. DESIGN: Prospective experimental study. SETTING: University research laboratory. INTERVENTIONS: Wild-type mice were subjected to the cecal ligation and puncture sepsis model. Control animals underwent identical laparotomy but without ligation and cecum puncture. On days 0, 7, and 14 after surgery, the ratio between urinary protein and creatinine was measured. Fifteen days after surgery, surviving mice were subjected to a second kidney insult through intraperitoneal injections of bovine serum albumin for 7 days. On day 22 after surgery, urinary protein and creatinine, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, lactate dehydrogenase, histologic parameters, macrophage infiltration, apoptotic cell, renal and plasmatic cytokines were determined. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: On days 7 and 14 after surgery, the urinary protein and creatinine observed in the septic animal group were higher than those observed in the control group. On day 22 after surgery, sepsis-surviving animals that were subjected to a second kidney insult showed more severe tubular injury compared with controls. This process seems to involve an immunosuppressive state because the concentrations of some renal cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin 6, interferon-γ and chemokine ligand 2, were decreased and leukocyte numbers were increased. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that sepsis induces long-term effects in kidney structure aggravating tubule damage in a second kidney insult.

Leukotriene B4 mediates neutrophil migration induced by heme.

High concentrations of free heme found during hemolytic events or cell damage leads to inflammation, characterized by neutrophil recruitment and production of reactive oxygen species, through mechanisms not yet elucidated. In this study, we provide evidence that heme-induced neutrophilic inflammation depends on endogenous activity of the macrophage-derived lipid mediator leukotriene B(4) (LTB(4)). In vivo, heme-induced neutrophil recruitment into the peritoneal cavity of mice was attenuated by pretreatment with 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) inhibitors and leukotriene B(4) receptor 1 (BLT1) receptor antagonists as well as in 5-LO knockout (5-LO(-/-)) mice. Heme administration in vivo increased peritoneal levels of LTB(4) prior to and during neutrophil recruitment. Evidence that LTB(4) was synthesized by resident macrophages, but not mast cells, included the following: 1) immuno-localization of heme-induced LTB(4) was compartmentalized exclusively within lipid bodies of resident macrophages; 2) an increase in the macrophage population enhanced heme-induced neutrophil migration; 3) depletion of resident mast cells did not affect heme-induced LTB(4) production or neutrophil influx; 4) increased levels of LTB(4) were found in heme-stimulated peritoneal cavities displaying increased macrophage numbers; and 5) in vitro, heme was able to activate directly macrophages to synthesize LTB(4). Our findings uncover a crucial role of LTB(4) in neutrophil migration induced by heme and suggest that beneficial therapeutic outcomes could be achieved by targeting the 5-LO pathway in the treatment of inflammation associated with hemolytic processes.

Proinflammatory responses of heme in alveolar macrophages: repercussion in lung hemorrhagic episodes.

Clinical and experimental observations have supported the notion that free heme released during hemorrhagic and hemolytic episodes may have a major role in lung inflammation. With alveolar macrophages (AM) being the main line of defense in lung environments, the influence of free heme on AM activity and function was investigated. We observed that heme in a concentration range found during hemolytic episodes (3-30 µM) elicits AM to present a proinflammatory profile, stimulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) generation and inducing IL-1ß, IL-6, and IL-10 secretion. ROS production is NADPH oxidase-dependent, being inhibited by DPI and apocynin, and involves p47 subunit phosphorylation. Furthermore, heme induces NF- κB nuclear translocation, iNOS, and also HO-1 expression. Moreover, AM stimulated with free heme show enhanced phagocytic and bactericidal activities. Taken together, the data support a dual role for heme in the inflammatory response associated with lung hemorrhage, acting as a proinflammatory molecule that can either act as both an adjuvant of the innate immunity and as an amplifier of the inflammatory response, leading tissue injury. The understanding of heme effects on pulmonary inflammatory processes can lead to the development of new strategies to ameliorate tissue damage associated with hemorrhagic episodes.

Pleiotropic antifibrotic actions of aspirin-triggered resolvin D1 in the lungs.

Introduction: Pulmonary fibrosis is a destructive, progressive disease that dramatically reduces life quality of patients, ultimately leading to death. Therapeutic regimens for pulmonary fibrosis have shown limited benefits, hence justifying the efforts to evaluate the outcome of alternative treatments. Methods: Using a mouse model of bleomycin (BLM)-induced lung fibrosis, in the current work we asked whether treatment with pro-resolution molecules, such as pro-resolving lipid mediators (SPMs) could ameliorate pulmonary fibrosis. To this end, we injected aspirin-triggered resolvin D1 (7S,8R,17R-trihydroxy-4Z,9E,11E,13Z,15E19Z-docosahexaenoic acid; ATRvD1; i.v.) 7 and 10 days after BLM (intratracheal) challenge and samples were two weeks later. Results and discussion: Assessment of outcome in the lung tissues revealed that ATRvD1 partially restored lung architecture, reduced leukocyte infiltration, and inhibited formation of interstitial edema. In addition, lung tissues from BLM-induced mice treated with ATRvD1 displayed reduced levels of TNF-α, MCP-1, IL-1-ß, and TGF-ß. Of further interest, ATRvD1 decreased lung tissue expression of MMP-9, without affecting TIMP-1. Highlighting the beneficial effects of ATRvD1, we found reduced deposition of collagen and fibronectin in the lung tissues. Congruent with the anti-fibrotic effects that ATRvD1 exerted in lung tissues, α-SMA expression was decreased, suggesting that myofibroblast differentiation was inhibited by ATRvD1. Turning to culture systems, we next showed that ATRvD1 impaired TGF-ß-induced fibroblast differentiation into myofibroblast. After showing that ATRvD1 hampered extracellular vesicles (EVs) release in the supernatants from TGF-ß-stimulated cultures of mouse macrophages, we verified that ATRvD1 also inhibited the release of EVs in the bronco-alveolar lavage (BAL) fluid of BLM-induced mice. Motivated by studies showing that BLM-induced lung fibrosis is linked to angiogenesis, we asked whether ATRvD1 could blunt BLM-induced angiogenesis in the hamster cheek pouch model (HCP). Indeed, our intravital microscopy studies confirmed that ATRvD1 abrogates BLM-induced angiogenesis. Collectively, our findings suggest that treatment of pulmonary fibrosis patients with ATRvD1 deserves to be explored as a therapeutic option in the clinical setting.

Cysteinyl-leukotrienes promote cutaneous Leishmaniasis control.

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical parasitic disease with few approved medications. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is the most frequent form, responsible for 0.7 - 1.0 million new cases annually worldwide. Leukotrienes are lipid mediators of inflammation produced in response to cell damage or infection. They are subdivided into leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and cysteinyl leukotrienes LTC4 and LTD4 (Cys-LTs), depending on the enzyme responsible for their production. Recently, we showed that LTB4 could be a target for purinergic signaling controlling Leishmania amazonensis infection; however, the importance of Cys-LTs in the resolution of infection remained unknown. Mice infected with L. amazonensis are a model of CL infection and drug screening. We found that Cys-LTs control L. amazonensis infection in susceptible (BALB/c) and resistant (C57BL/6) mouse strains. In vitro, Cys-LTs significantly diminished the L. amazonensis infection index in peritoneal macrophages of BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice. In vivo, intralesional treatment with Cys-LTs reduced the lesion size and parasite loads in the infected footpads of C57BL/6 mice. The anti-leishmanial role of Cys-LTs depended on the purinergic P2X7 receptor, as infected cells lacking the receptor did not produce Cys-LTs in response to ATP. These findings suggest the therapeutic potential of LTB4 and Cys-LTs for CL treatment.

High mobility group box 1, ATP, lipid mediators, and tissue factor are elevated in COVID-19 patients: HMGB1 as a biomarker of worst prognosis.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the agent of the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, has spread worldwide since it was first identified in November 2019 in Wuhan, China. Since then, progress in pathogenesis linked severity of this systemic disease to the hyperactivation of network of cytokine-driven pro-inflammatory cascades. Here, we aimed to identify molecular biomarkers of disease severity by measuring the serum levels of inflammatory mediators in a Brazilian cohort of patients with COVID-19 and healthy controls (HCs). Critically ill patients in the intensive care unit were defined as such by dependence on oxygen supplementation (93% intubated and 7% face mask), and computed tomography profiles showing ground-glass opacity pneumonia associated to and high levels of D-dimer. Our panel of mediators included HMGB1, ATP, tissue factor, PGE2 , LTB4 , and cys-LTs. Follow-up studies showed increased serum levels of every inflammatory mediator in patients with COVID-19 as compared to HCs. Originally acting as a transcription factor, HMGB1 acquires pro-inflammatory functions following secretion by activated leukocytes or necrotic tissues. Serum levels of HMGB1 were positively correlated with cys-LTs, D-dimer, aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase. Notably, the levels of the classical alarmin HMGB1 were higher in deceased patients, allowing their discrimination from patients that had been discharged at the early pulmonary and hyperinflammatory phase of COVID-19. In particular, we verified that HMGB1 levels above 125.4 ng/ml is the cutoff that distinguishes patients that are at higher risk of death. In conclusion, we propose the use of serum levels of HMGB1 as a biomarker of severe prognosis of COVID-19.

Age-linked suppression of lipoxin A4 associates with cognitive deficits in mice and humans.

Age increases the risk for cognitive impairment and is the single major risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prevalent form of dementia in the elderly. The pathophysiological processes triggered by aging that render the brain vulnerable to dementia involve, at least in part, changes in inflammatory mediators. Here we show that lipoxin A4 (LXA4), a lipid mediator of inflammation resolution known to stimulate endocannabinoid signaling in the brain, is reduced in the aging central nervous system. We demonstrate that genetic suppression of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX), the enzyme mediating LXA4 synthesis, promotes learning impairment in mice. Conversely, administration of exogenous LXA4 attenuated cytokine production and memory loss induced by inflammation in mice. We further show that cerebrospinal fluid LXA4 is reduced in patients with dementia and positively associated with cognitive performance, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and AD-linked amyloid-ß. Our findings suggest that reduced LXA4 levels may lead to vulnerability to age-related cognitive disorders and that promoting LXA4 signaling may comprise an effective strategy to prevent early cognitive decline in AD.

ATLa, an aspirin-triggered lipoxin A4 synthetic analog, prevents the inflammatory and fibrotic effects of bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis.

Despite an increase in the knowledge of mechanisms and mediators involved in pulmonary fibrosis, there are no successful therapeutics available. Lipoxins (LX) and their 15-epimers, aspirin-triggered LX (ATL), are endogenously produced eicosanoids with potent anti-inflammatory and proresolution effects. To date, few studies have been performed regarding their effect on pulmonary fibrosis. In the present study, using C57BL/6 mice, we report that bleomycin (BLM)-induced lung fibrosis was prevented by the concomitant treatment with an ATL synthetic analog, ATLa, which reduced inflammation and matrix deposition. ATLa inhibited BLM-induced leukocyte accumulation and alveolar collapse as evaluated by histology and morphometrical analysis. Moreover, Sirius red staining and lung hydroxyproline content showed an increased collagen deposition in mice receiving BLM alone that was decreased upon treatment with the analog. These effects resulted in benefits to pulmonary mechanics, as ATLa brought to normal levels both lung resistance and compliance. Furthermore, the analog improved mouse survival, suggesting an important role for the LX pathway in the control of disease establishment and progression. One possible mechanism by which ATLa restrained fibrosis was suggested by the finding that BLM-induced myofibroblast accumulation/differentiation in the lung parenchyma was also reduced by both simultaneous and posttreatment with the analog (alpha-actin immunohistochemistry). Interestingly, ATLa posttreatment (4 days after BLM) showed similar inhibitory effects on inflammation and matrix deposition, besides the TGF-beta level reduction in the lung, reinforcing an antifibrotic effect. In conclusion, our findings show that LX and ATL can be considered as promising therapeutic approaches to lung fibrotic diseases.

Acute catabolism of leukocyte lipid bodies: Characterization of a nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA)-induced proteasomal-dependent model.

Cytoplasmic availability of leukocyte lipid bodies is controlled by a highly regulated cycle of opposing biogenesis- and catabolism-related events. While leukocyte biogenic machinery is well-characterized, lipid body catabolic mechanisms are yet mostly unknown. Here, we demonstrated that nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) very rapidly decreases the numbers of pre-formed lipid bodies within lipid body-enriched cytoplasm of mouse leukocytes - macrophages, neutrophils and eosinophils. NDGA mechanisms driving leukocyte lipid body disappearance were not related to loss of cell viability, 5-lipoxygenase inhibition, ATP autocrine/paracrine activity, or biogenesis inhibition. Proteasomal-dependent breakdown of lipid bodies appears to control NDGA-driven leukocyte lipid body reduction, since it was Bortezomib-sensitive in macrophages, neutrophils and eosinophils. Our findings unveil an acute NDGA-triggered lipid body catabolic event - a novel experimental model for the still neglected research area on leukocyte lipid body catabolism, additionally favoring further insights on proteasomal contribution to lipid body breakdown.