Adaptations in placental phenotype depend on route and timing of maternal dexamethasone administration in mice.

Synthetic glucocorticoids, like dexamethasone (dex), restrict growth of the fetus and program its adult physiology, in part by altering placental phenotype. The route and timing of dex administration determine the fetal and adult outcomes, but whether these factors affect placental phenotype remains unknown. This study compared placental morphology, amino acid transport, and gene expression in mice given dex orally or by subcutaneous injection over the periods of most rapid placental (Days [D] 11-16) or fetal (D14-19) growth (term is D21). Compared with untreated and saline-injected controls, both dex treatments reduced placental weight at D16 and 19 and fetal weight and total labyrinthine volume at D19 to a similar extent. Only oral dex treatment from D11 to D16 reduced labyrinthine fetal capillary volume on D16 and increased placental ¹4C-methylaminoisobutyric acid (MeAIB) clearance at D19, 3 days after treatment ended. Neither route of dex treatment altered placental expression of Slc38a, Hsd11b, or the glucocorticoid receptor, Nr3c1, at D16. In contrast, both routes of dex treatment from D14 to D19 increased placental Hsd11b2 expression and labyrinthine maternal vessel volume. Furthermore, injection per se altered placental expression of Nr3c1, Hsd11b1, and specific Slc38a isoforms in an age-related manner. Overall, MeAIB clearance was not related to Slc38a transporter expression but was correlated inversely with maternal corticosterone concentrations when dex was undetectable in maternal plasma at D19. The effects of dex on placental phenotype, therefore, depend on both the route and timing of administration and may relate to local glucocorticoid availability during and after the treatment period.

Deletion of the Imprinted Phlda2 Gene Increases Placental Passive Permeability in the Mouse.

Genomic imprinting, an epigenetic phenomenon that causes the expression of a small set of genes in a parent-of-origin-specific manner, is thought to have co-evolved with placentation. Many imprinted genes are expressed in the placenta, where they play diverse roles related to development and nutrient supply function. However, only a small number of imprinted genes have been functionally tested for a role in nutrient transfer capacity in relation to the structural characteristics of the exchange labyrinthine zone. Here, we examine the transfer capacity in a mouse model deficient for the maternally expressed Phlda2 gene, which results in placental overgrowth and a transient reduction in fetal growth. Using stereology, we show that the morphology of the labyrinthine zone in Phlda2-/+ mutants is normal at E16 and E19. In vivo placental transfer of radiolabeled solutes 14C-methyl-D-glucose and 14C-MeAIB remains unaffected at both gestational time points. However, placental passive permeability, as measured using two inert hydrophilic solutes (14C-mannitol; 14C-inulin), is significantly higher in mutants. Importantly, this increase in passive permeability is associated with fetal catch-up growth. Our findings uncover a key role played by the imprinted Phlda2 gene in modifying placental passive permeability that may be important for determining fetal growth.

Camk2n1 Is a Negative Regulator of Blood Pressure, Left Ventricular Mass, Insulin Sensitivity, and Promotes Adiposity.

Metabolic syndrome is a cause of coronary artery disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Camk2n1 resides in genomic loci for blood pressure, left ventricle mass, and type 2 diabetes mellitus, and in the spontaneously hypertensive rat model of metabolic syndrome, Camk2n1 expression is cis-regulated in left ventricle and fat and positively correlates with adiposity. Therefore, we knocked out Camk2n1 in spontaneously hypertensive rat to investigate its role in metabolic syndrome. Compared with spontaneously hypertensive rat, Camk2n1-/- rats had reduced cardiorenal CaMKII (Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II) activity, lower blood pressure, enhanced nitric oxide bioavailability, and reduced left ventricle mass associated with altered hypertrophic networks. Camk2n1 deficiency reduced insulin resistance, visceral fat, and adipogenic capacity through the altered cell cycle and complement pathways, independent of CaMKII. In human visceral fat, CAMK2N1 expression correlated with adiposity and genomic variants that increase CAMK2N1 expression associated with increased risk of coronary artery disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Camk2n1 regulates multiple networks that control metabolic syndrome traits and merits further investigation as a therapeutic target in humans.

Genetic, physiological and comparative genomic studies of hypertension and insulin resistance in the spontaneously hypertensive rat.

We previously mapped hypertension-related insulin resistance quantitative trait loci (QTLs) to rat chromosomes 4, 12 and 16 using adipocytes from F2 crosses between spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) and Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats, and subsequently identified Cd36 as the gene underlying the chromosome 4 locus. The identity of the chromosome 12 and 16 genes remains unknown. To identify whole-body phenotypes associated with the chromosome 12 and 16 linkage regions, we generated and characterised new congenic strains, with WKY donor segments introgressed onto an SHR genetic background, for the chromosome 12 and 16 linkage regions. We found a >50% increase in insulin sensitivity in both the chromosome 12 and 16 strains. Blood pressure and left ventricular mass were reduced in the two congenic strains consistent with the congenic segments harbouring SHR genes for insulin resistance, hypertension and cardiac hypertrophy. Integrated genomic analysis, using physiological and whole-genome sequence data across 42 rat strains, identified variants within the congenic regions in Upk3bl, RGD1565131 and AABR06087018.1 that were associated with blood pressure, cardiac mass and insulin sensitivity. Quantitative trait transcript analysis across 29 recombinant inbred strains showed correlation between expression of Hspb1, Zkscan5 and Pdgfrl with adipocyte volume, systolic blood pressure and cardiac mass, respectively. Comparative genome analysis showed a marked enrichment of orthologues for human GWAS-associated genes for insulin resistance within the syntenic regions of both the chromosome 12 and 16 congenic intervals. Our study defines whole-body phenotypes associated with the SHR chromosome 12 and 16 insulin-resistance QTLs, identifies candidate genes for these SHR QTLs and finds human orthologues of rat genes in these regions that associate with related human traits. Further study of these genes in the congenic strains will lead to robust identification of the underlying genes and cellular mechanisms.

Complement Factor B Is a Determinant of Both Metabolic and Cardiovascular Features of Metabolic Syndrome.

CFB (complement factor B) is elevated in adipose tissue and serum from patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease, but the causal relationship to disease pathogenesis is unclear. Cfb is also elevated in adipose tissue and serum of the spontaneously hypertensive rat, a well-characterized model of metabolic syndrome. To establish the role of CFB in metabolic syndrome, we knocked out the Cfb gene in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Cfb-/- rats showed improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, redistribution of visceral to subcutaneous fat, increased adipocyte mitochondrial respiration, and marked changes in gene expression. Cfb-/- rats also had lower blood pressure, increased ejection fraction and fractional shortening, and reduced left ventricular mass. These changes in metabolism and gene expression, in adipose tissue and left ventricle, suggest new adipose tissue-intrinsic and blood pressure-independent mechanisms for insulin resistance and cardiac hypertrophy in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. In silico analysis of the human CFB locus revealed 2 cis-regulated expression quantitative trait loci for CFB expression significantly associated with visceral fat, circulating triglycerides and hypertension in genome-wide association studies. Together, these data demonstrate a key role for CFB in the development of spontaneously hypertensive rat metabolic syndrome phenotypes and of related traits in humans and indicate the potential for CFB as a novel target for treatment of cardiometabolic disease.

New Wistar Kyoto and spontaneously hypertensive rat transgenic models with ubiquitous expression of green fluorescent protein.

The Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rat and the spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rat inbred strains are well-established models for human crescentic glomerulonephritis (CRGN) and metabolic syndrome, respectively. Novel transgenic (Tg) strains add research opportunities and increase scientific value to well-established rat models. We have created two novel Tg strains using Sleeping Beauty transposon germline transgenesis, ubiquitously expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the rat elongation factor 1 alpha (EF1a) promoter on the WKY and SHR genetic backgrounds. The Sleeping Beauty system functioned with high transgenesis efficiency; 75% of new rats born after embryo microinjections were transgene positive. By ligation-mediated PCR, we located the genome integration sites, confirming no exonic disruption and defining a single or low copy number of the transgenes in the new WKY-GFP and SHR-GFP Tg lines. We report GFP-bright expression in embryos, tissues and organs in both lines and show preliminaryin vitroandin vivoimaging data that demonstrate the utility of the new GFP-expressing lines for adoptive transfer, transplantation and fate mapping studies of CRGN, metabolic syndrome and other traits for which these strains have been extensively studied over the past four decades.

Placental structure in type 1 diabetes: relation to fetal insulin, leptin, and IGF-I.

OBJECTIVE: Alteration of placental structure may influence fetal overgrowth and complications of maternal diabetes. We examined the placenta in a cohort of offspring of mothers with type 1 diabetes (OT1DM) to assess structural changes and determine whether these were related to maternal A1C, fetal hematocrit, fetal hormonal, or metabolic axes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Placental samples were analyzed using stereological techniques to quantify volumes and surface areas of key placental components in 88 OT1DM and 39 control subjects, and results related to maternal A1C and umbilical cord analytes (insulin, leptin, adiponectin, IGF-I, hematocrit, lipids, C-reactive protein, and interleukin-6). RESULTS: Intervillous space volume was increased in OT1DM (OT1DM 250 + or - 81 cm(3) vs. control 217 + or - 65 cm(3); P = 0.02) with anisomorphic growth of villi (P = 0.025). The placentas showed a trend to increased weight (OT1DM 690 + or - 19 g; control 641 + or - 22 g; P = 0.08), but villous, nonparenchymal, trophoblast, and capillary volumes did not differ. Villous surface area, capillary surface area, membrane thickness, and calculated morphometric diffusing capacity were also similar in type 1 diabetic and control subjects. A1C at 26-34 weeks associated with birth weight (r = 0.27, P = 0.03), placental weight (r = 0.41, P = 0.0009), and intervillous space volume (r = 0.38, P = 0.0024). In multivariate analysis of cord parameters in OT1DM, fetal IGF-I emerged as a significant correlate of most components (intervillous space, villous, trophoblast, and capillary volumes, all P < 0.01). By contrast, fetal insulin was only independently associated with capillary surface area (positive, r(2) = 6.7%; P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: There are minimal placental structural differences between OT1DM and control subjects. Fetal IGF-I but not fetal insulin emerges as a key correlate of placental substructural volumes, thereby facilitating feedback to the placenta regarding fetal metabolic demand.

Developmental dynamics of the definitive mouse placenta assessed by stereology.

The mouse is an excellent model for studying the genetic basis of placental development, but analyses are restricted by the lack of quantitative data describing normal murine placental structure. This study establishes a technique for generating such data, applies stereological techniques on systematic uniform random sections of placentas between E12.5-E18.5 of gestation (E1.0 = day of the vaginal plug), and considers the results in the context of development of the labyrinth zone. Half of each placenta was wax embedded and exhaustively sectioned to determine absolute volumes of the labyrinth zone (Lz), junctional zone (Jz), and decidua using the Cavalieri principle. The other half was resin embedded and 1-microm sections were used to generate all volume, surface, and length densities within the Lz. Maximum placental volume is reached by E16.5, whereas the Lz volume fraction increases until E18.5 at the expense of the Jz and decidua. Within the Lz, the absolute volume and surface area of maternal blood spaces (MBS) expand rapidly between E14.5 and E16.5, with no increase thereafter. In contrast, fetal capillary development is linear and continues for longer than that of the MBS. The interhemal membrane separating maternal and fetal circulations undergoes thinning prior to expansion of maternal and fetal surface areas, achieving a harmonic mean thickness of 4.39 microm by E18.5. The specific diffusion capacity for oxygen of the interhemal membrane is maximal by E16.5, which may be necessary to support rapid fetal growth until the end of gestation.