Socioenvironmental stressors encountered during spaceflight partially affect the murine TCR-ß repertoire and increase its self-reactivity.

Spaceflights are known to affect the immune system. In a previous study, we demonstrated that hypergravity exposure during murine development modified 85% of the T-cell receptor (TCR)-ß repertoire. In this study, we investigated whether socioenvironmental stressors encountered during space missions affect T lymphopoiesis and the TCR-ß repertoire. To address this question, pregnant mice were subjected throughout gestation to chronic unpredictable mild stressors (CUMS), a model used to mimic socioenvironmental stresses encountered during space missions. Then, newborn T lymphopoiesis and the TCR-ß repertoire were studied by flow cytometry and high-throughput sequencing, respectively. No change in thymocyte maturation or TCR expression were noted. TCR-ß repertoire analysis revealed that 75% of neonate TCR-ß sequences resulted from the expression of 3 variable (V)ß segments and that this core repertoire was not affected by CUMS. However, the minor repertoire, representing 25% of the global repertoire, was sensitive to CUMS exposure. We also showed that the variable (diversity) joining [V(D)J] recombination process was unlikely to be affected. Finally, we noted that the CUMS neonatal minor repertoire was more self-reactive than the one of control pups. These findings show that socioenvironmental stressors such as those encountered during space missions affect a fraction (25%) of the TCR-ß repertoire and that these stressors could increase self-reactivity.-Fonte, C., Kaminski, S., Vanet, A., Lanfumey, L., Cohen-Salmon, C., Ghislin, S., Frippiat, J.-P. Socioenvironmental stressors encountered during spaceflight partially affect the murine TCR-ß repertoire and increase its self-reactivity.

Mitochondrial DNA modifies cognition in interaction with the nuclear genome and age in mice.

Several lines of evidence indicate an association between mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and the functioning of the nervous system. As neuronal development and structure as well as axonal and synaptic activity involve mitochondrial genes, it is not surprising that most mtDNA diseases are associated with brain disorders. Only one study has suggested an association between mtDNA and cognition, however. Here we provide direct evidence of mtDNA involvement in cognitive functioning. Total substitution of mtDNA was achieved by 20 repeated backcrosses in NZB/BlNJ (N) and CBA/H (H) mice with different mtDNA origins. All 13 mitochondrial genes were expressed in the brains of the congenic quartet. In interaction with nuclear DNA (nDNA), mtDNA modified learning, exploration, sensory development and the anatomy of the brain. The effects of mtDNA substitution persisted with age, increasing in magnitude as the mice got older. We observed different effects with input of mtDNA from N versus H mice, varying according to the phenotypes. Exchanges of mtDNA may produce phenotypes outside the range of scores observed in the original mitochondrial and nuclear combinations. These findings show that mitochondrial polymorphisms are not as neutral as was previously believed.

Aging of the dopaminergic system and motor behavior in mice intoxicated with the parkinsonian toxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine.

1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) intoxication of mice is a standard model of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, it does not reproduce functionally PD. Given the occurrence of PD during aging, symptoms might only be detected in MPTP-intoxicated mice after aging. To address this, mice injected with MPTP at 2.5 months were followed up to a maximum age of 21 months. There was no loss of dopamine cells with aging in control mice; moreover, the initial post-MPTP intoxication decrease in dopamine cell was no longer significant at 21 months. With aging, striatal dopamine level remained constant, but concentrations of the dopamine metabolites dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA) were markedly reduced in both groups. There was also a late impairment of fine motor skills. After MPTP intoxication, hyperactivity was immediately detected and it became greater than in control mice from 14 months of age; fine motor skills were also more impaired; both these symptoms were correlated with striatal dopamine, DOPAC and HVA concentrations. In bothgroups, neither motor symptoms nor dopamine changes worsened with age. These findings do not support the notion that PD develops with age in mice after MPTP intoxication and that the motor deficits seen are because of an aging process.

Chronic mild stress during gestation worsens neonatal brain lesions in mice.

Cerebral palsy remains a public health priority. Recognition of factors of susceptibility to perinatal brain lesions is key for the prevention of cerebral palsy. In most cases, the pathophysiology of these lesions is thought to involve prior exposure to predisposing factors that make the developing brain more vulnerable to perinatal events. The present study tested the hypothesis that exposure to chronic minimal stress throughout gestation would sensitize the offspring to neonatal excitotoxic brain lesions, which mimic lesions observed in cerebral palsy. Pregnant mice were exposed to chronic, ultramild stress, applied throughout gestation. Neonatal brain lesions were induced by intracerebral injection of glutamate analogs. Excitotoxic lesions were significantly worsened in pups exposed to gestational stress. Stress induced a significant rise of circulating corticosterone levels both in pregnant mothers and in newborn pups. The deleterious effects of stress on excitotoxicity were totally suppressed in mice with reduced levels of glucocorticoid receptors. Stress induced a significant increase of neopallial NMDA binding sites in the offspring. At adulthood, animals exposed to stress and neonatal excitotoxic challenge showed a significant impairment in the Morris water maze test when compared with animals exposed to the excitotoxic challenge but not the gestational stress. These findings suggest that stress during gestation, which may mimic low-level stress in human pregnancy, could be a novel risk factor for cerebral palsy.

Corticosteroid-serotonin interactions in the neurobiological mechanisms of stress-related disorders.

Among psychiatric disorders, depression and generalized anxiety are probably the most common stress-related illnesses. These diseases are underlain, at least partly, by dysfunctions of neurotransmitters and neurohormones, especially within the serotoninergic (5-HT) system and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which are also the targets of drugs used for their treatment. This review focuses on the nature of the interactions between central 5-HT and corticotrope systems in animal models, in particular those allowing the assessment of serotoninergic function following experimental manipulation of the HPA axis. The review provides an overview of the HPA axis and the 5-HT system organization, focusing on the 5-HT(1A) receptors, which play a pivotal role in the 5-HT system regulation and its response to stress. Both molecular and functional aspects of 5-HT/HPA interactions are then analyzed in the frame of psychoaffective disorders. The review finally examines the hippocampal neurogenesis response to experimental paradigms of stress and antidepressant treatment, in which neurotrophic factors are considered to play key roles according to the current views on the pathophysiology of depressive disorders.

A Model of Chronic Exposure to Unpredictable Mild Socio-Environmental Stressors Replicates Some Spaceflight-Induced Immunological Changes.

During spaceflight, astronauts face radiations, mechanical, and socio-environmental stressors. To determine the impact of chronic socio-environmental stressors on immunity, we exposed adult male mice to chronic unpredictable mild psychosocial and environmental stressors (CUMS model) for 3 weeks. This duration was chosen to simulate a long flight at the human scale. Our data show that this combination of stressors induces an increase of serum IgA, a reduction of normalized splenic mass and tends to reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, as previously reported during or after space missions. However, CUMS did not modify major splenic lymphocyte sub-populations and the proliferative responses of splenocytes suggesting that these changes could be due to other factors such as gravity changes. Thus, CUMS, which is an easy to implement model, could contribute to deepen our understanding of some spaceflight-associated immune alterations and could be useful to test countermeasures.

Spontaneous appetence for wheel-running: a model of dependency on physical activity in rat.

According to human observations of a syndrome of physical activity dependence and its consequences, we tried to examine if running activity in a free activity paradigm, where rats had a free access to activity wheel, may present a valuable animal model for physical activity dependence and most generally to behavioral dependence. The pertinence of reactivity to novelty, a well-known pharmacological dependence predictor was also tested. Given the close linkage observed in human between physical activity and drugs use and abuse, the influence of free activity in activity wheels on reactivity to amphetamine injection and reactivity to novelty were also assessed. It appeared that (1) free access to wheel may be used as a valuable model for physical activity addiction, (2) two populations differing in activity amount also differed in dependence to wheel-running. (3) Reactivity to novelty did not appeared as a predictive factor for physical activity dependence (4) activity modified novelty reactivity and (5) subjects who exhibited a high appetence to wheel-running, presented a strong reactivity to amphetamine. These results propose a model of dependency on physical activity without any pharmacological intervention, and demonstrate the existence of individual differences in the development of this addiction. In addition, these data highlight the development of a likely vulnerability to pharmacological addiction after intense and sustained physical activity, as also described in man. This model could therefore prove pertinent for studying behavioral dependencies and the underlying neurobiological mechanisms. These results may influence the way psychiatrists view behavioral dependencies and phenomena such as doping in sport or addiction to sport itself.

Neurochemical and behavioral alterations in glucocorticoid receptor-impaired transgenic mice after chronic mild stress.

Mice (GR-i) bearing a transgene encoding a glucocorticoid receptor (GR) antisense RNA under the control of a neuron-specific neurofilament promoter were used to investigate the effects of a 4 week chronic mild stress (CMS) on the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis and the serotoninergic system in a transgenic model of vulnerability to affective disorders. GR-i mice showed a decrease in both GR-specific binding (hippocampus and cerebral cortex) and GR mRNA levels [hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN)] as well as a deficit in HPA axis feedback control (dexamethasone test) compared with paired wild-type (WT) mice. In the latter animals, CMS exposure caused a significant decrease in both GR mRNA levels and the density of cytosolic GR binding sites in the hippocampus, whereas, in the DRN, GR mRNA levels tended to increase. In contrast, in stressed GR-i mice, both GR mRNA levels and the density of GR binding sites were significantly increased in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and DRN. Electrophysiological recordings in brainstem slices and [gamma-35S]GTP-S binding measurements to assess 5-HT1A receptor functioning showed that CMS exposure produced a desensitization of DRN 5-HT1A autoreceptors in WT, but not in GR-i, mice. In addition, CMS was found to facilitate choice behavior of WT, but not GR-i, mice in a decision-making task derived from an alternation paradigm. These results demonstrate that impaired GR functioning affects normal adaptive responses of the HPA axis and 5-HT system to CMS and alters stress-related consequences on decision-making behaviors.

Attack behaviors in mice: from factorial structure to quantitative trait loci mapping.

The emergence or non-emergence of attack behavior results from interaction between the genotype and the conditions under which the mice are tested. Inbred mice of the same strain reared or housed under conditions do not react the same way; reactions also vary according to the place selected for testing and the different opponents. A factor analysis showed that the attack behavior in non-isolated males, tested in neutral area covaried with high testosterone and steroid sulfatase and low brain 5-hydroxytriptamine (5-HT), beta-endorphin and Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) concentration, whereas, for isolated males tested in their own housing cage, it covaried with high testosterone activity and low brain 5-HT concentration. A wide genome scan was performed with two independent populations derived from C57BL/6J and NZB/BlNJ, each being reared, housed and tested under highly contrasting conditions, as described above, and confronted with A/J standard males. Common Quantitative Trait Loci emerged for two rearing/testing conditions. For rattling latency we detected Quantitative Trait Loci on Mus musculus chromosome 8 (MMU8) (at 44, LOD score=3.51 and 47 cM, LOD score=6.22, for the first and the second conditions) and on MMU12 (at 39 cM, LOD score=3.69 and at 41 cM, LOD score=2.99, respectively). For the number of attacks, Quantitative Trait Loci were common: on MMU11 at 39 cM LOD score=4.51 and 45 cM, LOD score=3.05, respectively, and on MMU12 (17 cM, LOD score=2.71 and 24 cM, LOD score=3.10). The steroid sulfatase gene (Sts), located on the X-Y pairing region, was linked, but only in non-isolated males, tested in neutral area for rattling latency, first attack latency, and number of attacks (LOD scores=4.9, 4.79 and 3.57, respectively). We found also that the Quantitative Trait Locus encompassing Sts region interacted with other Quantitative Trait Loci. These results indicate that attack behavior measured in different rearing and testing conditions have different biological and genetic correlates. This suggests that further explorations should be done with standardized tests and, in addition, with a wide range of tests, so as to gain an understanding of the true impact of genes or pharmacological treatments on specific categories of aggressive behavior.

Prepartum chronic ultramild stress increases corticosterone and estradiol levels in gestating mice: implications for postpartum depressive disorders.

Fluctuations in steroid hormones (glucocorticoids and estradiol) levels during pregnancy and after delivery are thought to contribute to the etiology of postpartum depression. Such changes may be exacerbated by stressful events, which constitute a predisposing factor for postpartum mood disorders. In the present study, blood hormonal variations associated with prepartum Chronic Ultramild Stress (CUMS) exposure were assessed at two times (15th day of pregnancy and 3rd day postpartum) in mice stressed from day 1 of pregnancy to termination of pregnancy. Litter weight and litter size were determined in both groups whereas the duration of pregnancy was determined in the 3-day postpartum group. CUMS increased estradiol and corticosterone levels during pregnancy, but such effects were no longer observed in the postpartum period, where cortisol levels were decreased in control and stressed mice and estradiol levels were reduced in previously stressed mothers. No effects of the CUMS procedure were observed on gestational parameters. Given the link between hormonal variations during pregnancy and subsequent postpartum depression, these results suggest that CUMS applied to gestating female may provide a useful model for the study of the mechanisms of stress, which may lead to postpartum mood disorders.

Chronic ultra-mild stress improves locomotor performance of B6D2F1 mice in a motor risk situation.

Chronic low grade stress predispose to psychopathological disorders. We consistently showed that chronic ultra-mild stress (CUMS) applied to B6D2F1 female mice induced behavioral disinhibition in several conflict exploration models. Insufficient reactivity to conflicts may be maladaptive and lead to inappropriate appreciation of potential risks and impaired ability to cope with those. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to assess the effect of a CUMS procedure on the behavior of mice in a motor risk situation based on multisensory conflict. Following three weeks exposure to various mild stressors, stressed and control B6D2F1 mice were tested on the rotating beam to determine how CUMS exposure affected balance control, posture stability and locomotor performance in response to a sensory-motor challenge. Detailed behavioral analysis included several parameters, both postural (height of the trunk, tail angle, number of imbalances, falls and head movements) and kinetic (mean velocity on the beam, distance covered with large and small movements, plus time spent in no-motion episodes). Comparisons between control and stressed mice showed that CUMS exposure increased mean velocity and improved locomotor performance in the learning task. In addition, sensitivity to sensory conflict seemed to be reduced in stressed mice, which displayed fewer behavioral adjustments to the increasing difficulty of the test compared to control mice. The results are discussed in terms of the possible influence of disturbances in behavioral and attentional inhibitory processes following CUMS exposure. Whether longer periods of CUMS exposure would shift the performance on the RTB from improvement to deterioration remain to be established.

Reappraisal of the serotonin 5-HT(1B) receptor gene in alcoholism: of mice and men.

Because pharmacological and genetic data supported the idea that serotonin receptors of the 5-HT(1B) type can play a modulatory role in alcohol consumption in both human and rodents, the 5-HT(1B) receptor gene is considered as a candidate gene for alcohol dependence. However, contradictory results have been reported as a positive association between alcohol dependence, and either the 861C or the 861G allele of the G861C polymorphism of the 5-HT(1B) receptor gene can be found in the literature. Further investigations in a population of 136 male alcoholics compared with 72 male control subjects demonstrated that none of these alleles was actually associated with alcohol dependence. In addition, in contrast with previous results of the literature, ethanol intake under free choice conditions (i.e., ethanol solution vs. water) was found to be similar in 5-HT(1B)-/- knock mice and paired wild-type controls. The 5-HT(1B) receptor gene may thus not be a key component in the genetic background underlying alcohol dependence in human and alcohol preference in rodents, although these results should be considered as preliminary according to the small size of our sample.

A new method for the assessment of spatial orientation and spatial anxiety in mice.

The implication of integrated functional sensory relations of the body to space in anxiety disorders is a very important issue which encourages the development of animal models, in particular, for pharmacological perspectives and for the functional assessment of the deficits induced by genetic manipulation in the mouse or the rat. A new experimental device is presented here: It is comprised of a rotating tunnel and a rotating-beam controlled by computer which can be used for multiple visuo-idiothetic and kinesthetic sensory conflict situations during active locomotor behaviour by mice. The system is linked to a digital video system, Video-Track trade mark, designed to track and record the movements of the animals. Anxious BALB/cByJ mice were compared to non-anxious C57BL/6J mice and were seen to display highly disturbed locomotor behaviour in a sensory conflict situation. The model highlights the advantages of video-digital analysis for animal behavioural sciences.

Bench to cribside: the path for developing a neuroprotectant.

The consequences of perinatal brain injury include immeasurable anguish for families and substantial ongoing costs for care and support of effected children. Factors associated with perinatal brain injury in the preterm infant include inflammation and infection, and with increasing gestational age, a higher proportion is related to hypoxic-ischemic events, such as stroke and placental abruption. Over the past decade, we have acquired new insights in the mechanisms underpinning injury and many new tools to monitor outcome in perinatal brain injury in our experimental models. By embracing these new technologies, we can expedite the screening of novel therapies. This is critical as despite enormous efforts of the research community, hypothermia is the only viable neurotherapeutic, and this procedure is limited to term birth and postcardiac arrest hypoxic-ischemic events. Importantly, experimental and preliminary data in humans also indicate a considerable therapeutic potential for melatonin against perinatal brain injury. However, even if this suggested potential is proven, the complexity of the human condition means we are likely to need additional neuroprotective and regenerative strategies. Thus, within this review, we will outline what we consider the key stages of preclinical testing and development for a neuroprotectant or regenerative neurotherapy for perinatal brain injury. We will also highlight examples of novel small animal physiological and behavioral testing that gives small animal preclinical models greater clinical relevance. We hope these new tools and an integrated bench to cribside strategic plan will facilitate the fulfillment of our overarching goal, improving the long-term brain health and quality of life for infants suffering perinatal brain injury.

Differential effects of free versus imposed motor activity on alcohol consumption in C57BL/6J versus DBA/2J mice.

Practicing sport regularly provides obvious physiological and psychological benefits, but intensive sport activity, for example, at the competition level, may be associated with an increased risk for addictive disorder, whether to improve results (doping), to tolerate consequences of important pressure and physical activities (drugs), or developing as a substitute when stopping, definitely or temporally, this activity that has been considered as potentially addictive (conversion). An animal model of voluntary versus imposed physical activity is described in which males of two mouse strains with high (C57BL/6J) versus (DBA/2J) low alcohol preference were tested for possible modifications of alcohol consumption during and after physical activity, when the activity was forced versus when it was recreative. Free access to a running wheel allowed a moderate physical activity that was associated with a decrease in voluntary alcohol intake in C57BL/6J mice. On the one hand, forced running at a higher speed than that occurring under free conditions led to increased alcohol intake, back to the initial level. On the other hand, alcohol intake remained at the same low level whether or not DBA/2J mice were subjected to free or forced running. The only effect of forced running in these alcohol-avoiding mice was a significant desynchronization of circadian motor activity rhythm, which was even more pronounced than that induced in alcohol-preferring C57BL/6J mice. These results highlight the positive aspects of moderate and entertaining sport activity and provide further support to the idea that it can decrease spontaneous alcohol intake. They also tend to demonstrate that, at least for vulnerable subjects, forced and intensive activities may not have the same benefits regarding alcohol consumption.

Parkin deficiency delays motor decline and disease manifestation in a mouse model of synucleinopathy.

In synucleinopathies, including Parkinson's disease, partially ubiquitylated alpha-synuclein species phosphorylated on serine 129 (P(S129)-alpha-synuclein) accumulate abnormally. Parkin, an ubiquitin-protein ligase that is dysfunctional in autosomal recessive parkinsonism, protects against alpha-synuclein-mediated toxicity in various models.We analyzed the effects of Parkin deficiency in a mouse model of synucleinopathy to explore the possibility that Parkin and alpha-synuclein act in the same biochemical pathway. Whether or not Parkin was present, these mice developed an age-dependent neurodegenerative disorder preceded by a progressive decline in performance in tasks predictive of sensorimotor dysfunction. The symptoms were accompanied by the deposition of P(S129)-alpha-synuclein but not P(S87)-alpha-synuclein in neuronal cell bodies and neuritic processes throughout the brainstem and the spinal cord; activation of caspase 9 was observed in 5% of the P(S129)-alpha-synuclein-positive neurons. As in Lewy bodies, ubiquitin-immunoreactivity, albeit less abundant, was invariably co-localized with P(S129)-alpha-synuclein. During late disease stages, the disease-specific neuropathological features revealed by ubiquitin- and P(S129)-alpha-synuclein-specific antibodies were similar in mice with or without Parkin. However, the proportion of P(S129)-alpha-synuclein-immunoreactive neuronal cell bodies and neurites co-stained for ubiquitin was lower in the absence than in the presence of Parkin, suggesting less advanced synucleinopathy. Moreover, sensorimotor impairment and manifestation of the neurodegenerative phenotype due to overproduction of human alpha-synuclein were significantly delayed in Parkin-deficient mice.These findings raise the possibility that effective compensatory mechanisms modulate the phenotypic expression of disease in parkin-related parkinsonism.

Alcohol intake after serotonin transporter inactivation in mice.

Knock-out mice lacking the serotonin transporter [5-hydroxytryptamine transporter (5-HTT)] were used to assess the influence of 5-HT re-uptake on ethanol consumption. Under a free-choice paradigm, alcohol intake was lower in mutant than in wild-type mice, and pharmacological blockade of 5-HTT by fluoxetine reduced alcohol intake in wild-type mice only. These data confirm the inhibitory effect of 5-HTT inactivation on ethanol intake.

Behavioral changes are not directly related to striatal monoamine levels, number of nigral neurons, or dose of parkinsonian toxin MPTP in mice.

Behavioral analyses of mice intoxicated by the parkinsonian toxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6,-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) have generated conflicting results. We therefore analyzed the relationship between behavioral changes, loss of monoamine levels, and loss of dopaminergic cell bodies in groups of mice intoxicated with acute or subchronic MPTP protocols. Despite a higher degree of neuronal loss in the mice intoxicated using subchronic protocols, dopamine loss was severe and homogeneous in the striatum in all groups. Dopamine levels were less severely reduced in the frontal cortex in the three groups of MPTP-intoxicated mice. Norepinephrine and serotonin levels in the striatum were decreased only in the mice intoxicated with the acute protocol. The most surprising result was that the mice intoxicated with the subchronic protocols were more active than the saline-treated mice. As reported in rats with dopamine depletion in the prefrontal cortex, the hyperactivity observed in our mice could be due to the reduced dopamine levels detected in this structure.

Role of TNF-alpha receptors in mice intoxicated with the parkinsonian toxin MPTP.

The loss of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease is associated with a glial reaction and the overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha). TNF-alpha acts via two different receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, and is believed to have both a neuroprotective and a deleterious role for neurons. In order to analyze the putative role of TNF-alpha in parkinsonism, we compared the effect of the parkinsonian drug 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) in mice lacking TNFR1, TNFR2, or both receptors and in wild-type littermates. We show that MPTP does not affect spontaneous activity or anxiety in any of the groups and that it reduces motor activity on a rotarod in double knock out mice but not in mice lacking only one receptor. Postmortem analysis revealed no differences in the number of nigral dopaminergic neurons whatever the group. In contrast, striatal dopamine level was slightly decreased in double knock-out mice and more reduced by MPTP in this group than in the other groups of mice. In addition, dopamine turnover was significantly more increased in double knock out mice after MPTP injection. These data suggest that TNF-alpha does not participate in the death of dopaminergic neurons in parkinsonism but that it slightly alters dopamine metabolism or the survival of dopaminergic terminals by a mechanism involving both receptors.

Parkin gene inactivation alters behaviour and dopamine neurotransmission in the mouse.

Mutations of the parkin gene are the most frequent cause of early onset autosomal recessive parkinsonism (EO-AR). Here we show that inactivation of the parkin gene in mice results in motor and cognitive deficits, inhibition of amphetamine-induced dopamine release and inhibition of glutamate neurotransmission. The levels of dopamine are increased in the limbic brain areas of parkin mutant mice and there is a shift towards increased metabolism of dopamine by MAO. Although there was no evidence for a reduction of nigrostriatal dopamine neurons in the parkin mutant mice, the level of dopamine transporter protein was reduced in these animals, suggesting a decreased density of dopamine terminals, or adaptative changes in the nigrostriatal dopamine system. GSH levels were increased in the striatum and fetal mesencephalic neurons from parkin mutant mice, suggesting that a compensatory mechanism may protect dopamine neurons from neuronal death. These parkin mutant mice provide a valuable tool to better understand the preclinical deficits observed in patients with PD and to characterize the mechanisms leading to the degeneration of dopamine neurons that could provide new strategies for neuroprotection.