Metabolic, fibrotic and splicing pathways are all altered in Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy spectrum patients to differing degrees.

Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD) is a genetically and clinically variable disorder. Previous attempts to use gene expression changes to find its pathomechanism were unavailing, so we engaged a functional pathway analysis. RNA-Seq was performed on cells from 10 patients diagnosed with an EDMD spectrum disease with different mutations in seven genes. Upon comparing to controls, the pathway analysis revealed that multiple genes involved in fibrosis, metabolism, myogenic signaling and splicing were affected in all patients. Splice variant analysis revealed alterations of muscle-specific variants for several important muscle genes. Deeper analysis of metabolic pathways revealed a reduction in glycolytic and oxidative metabolism and reduced numbers of mitochondria across a larger set of 14 EDMD spectrum patients and 7 controls. Intriguingly, the gene expression signatures segregated the patients into three subgroups whose distinctions could potentially relate to differences in clinical presentation. Finally, differential expression analysis of miRNAs changing in the patients similarly highlighted fibrosis, metabolism and myogenic signaling pathways. This pathway approach revealed a transcriptome profile that can both be used as a template for establishing a biomarker panel for EDMD and direct further investigation into its pathomechanism. Furthermore, the segregation of specific gene changes into distinct groups that appear to correlate with clinical presentation may template development of prognostic biomarkers, though this will first require their testing in a wider set of patients with more clinical information.

Tissue-Specific Gene Repositioning by Muscle Nuclear Membrane Proteins Enhances Repression of Critical Developmental Genes during Myogenesis.

Whether gene repositioning to the nuclear periphery during differentiation adds another layer of regulation to gene expression remains controversial. Here, we resolve this by manipulating gene positions through targeting the nuclear envelope transmembrane proteins (NETs) that direct their normal repositioning during myogenesis. Combining transcriptomics with high-resolution DamID mapping of nuclear envelope-genome contacts, we show that three muscle-specific NETs, NET39, Tmem38A, and WFS1, direct specific myogenic genes to the nuclear periphery to facilitate their repression. Retargeting a NET39 fragment to nucleoli correspondingly repositioned a target gene, indicating a direct tethering mechanism. Being able to manipulate gene position independently of other changes in differentiation revealed that repositioning contributes ⅓ to ⅔ of a gene's normal repression in myogenesis. Together, these NETs affect 37% of all genes changing expression during myogenesis, and their combined knockdown almost completely blocks myotube formation. This unequivocally demonstrates that NET-directed gene repositioning is critical for developmental gene regulation.

Mitochondria are required for pro-ageing features of the senescent phenotype.

Cell senescence is an important tumour suppressor mechanism and driver of ageing. Both functions are dependent on the development of the senescent phenotype, which involves an overproduction of pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant signals. However, the exact mechanisms regulating these phenotypes remain poorly understood. Here, we show the critical role of mitochondria in cellular senescence. In multiple models of senescence, absence of mitochondria reduced a spectrum of senescence effectors and phenotypes while preserving ATP production via enhanced glycolysis. Global transcriptomic analysis by RNA sequencing revealed that a vast number of senescent-associated changes are dependent on mitochondria, particularly the pro-inflammatory phenotype. Mechanistically, we show that the ATM, Akt and mTORC1 phosphorylation cascade integrates signals from the DNA damage response (DDR) towards PGC-1ß-dependent mitochondrial biogenesis, contributing to aROS-mediated activation of the DDR and cell cycle arrest. Finally, we demonstrate that the reduction in mitochondrial content in vivo, by either mTORC1 inhibition or PGC-1ß deletion, prevents senescence in the ageing mouse liver. Our results suggest that mitochondria are a candidate target for interventions to reduce the deleterious impact of senescence in ageing tissues.

Constrained release of lamina-associated enhancers and genes from the nuclear envelope during T-cell activation facilitates their association in chromosome compartments.

The 3D organization of the genome changes concomitantly with expression changes during hematopoiesis and immune activation. Studies have focused either on lamina-associated domains (LADs) or on topologically associated domains (TADs), defined by preferential local chromatin interactions, and chromosome compartments, defined as higher-order interactions between TADs sharing functionally similar states. However, few studies have investigated how these affect one another. To address this, we mapped LADs using Lamin B1-DamID during Jurkat T-cell activation, finding significant genome reorganization at the nuclear periphery dominated by release of loci frequently important for T-cell function. To assess how these changes at the nuclear periphery influence wider genome organization, our DamID data sets were contrasted with TADs and compartments. Features of specific repositioning events were then tested by fluorescence in situ hybridization during T-cell activation. First, considerable overlap between TADs and LADs was observed with the TAD repositioning as a unit. Second, A1 and A2 subcompartments are segregated in 3D space through differences in proximity to LADs along chromosomes. Third, genes and a putative enhancer in LADs that were released from the periphery during T-cell activation became preferentially associated with A2 subcompartments and were constrained to the relative proximity of the lamina. Thus, lamina associations influence internal nuclear organization, and changes in LADs during T-cell activation may provide an important additional mode of gene regulation.

Genomic loci mispositioning in Tmem120a knockout mice yields latent lipodystrophy.

Little is known about how the observed fat-specific pattern of 3D-spatial genome organisation is established. Here we report that adipocyte-specific knockout of the gene encoding nuclear envelope transmembrane protein Tmem120a disrupts fat genome organisation, thus causing a lipodystrophy syndrome. Tmem120a deficiency broadly suppresses lipid metabolism pathway gene expression and induces myogenic gene expression by repositioning genes, enhancers and miRNA-encoding loci between the nuclear periphery and interior. Tmem120a-/- mice, particularly females, exhibit a lipodystrophy syndrome similar to human familial partial lipodystrophy FPLD2, with profound insulin resistance and metabolic defects that manifest upon exposure to an obesogenic diet. Interestingly, similar genome organisation defects occurred in cells from FPLD2 patients that harbour nuclear envelope protein encoding LMNA mutations. Our data indicate TMEM120A genome organisation functions affect many adipose functions and its loss may yield adiposity spectrum disorders, including a miRNA-based mechanism that could explain muscle hypertrophy in human lipodystrophy.

Nucleoplasmic signals promote directed transmembrane protein import simultaneously via multiple channels of nuclear pores.

Roughly 10% of eukaryotic transmembrane proteins are found on the nuclear membrane, yet how such proteins target and translocate to the nucleus remains in dispute. Most models propose transport through the nuclear pore complexes, but a central outstanding question is whether transit occurs through their central or peripheral channels. Using live-cell high-speed super-resolution single-molecule microscopy we could distinguish protein translocation through the central and peripheral channels, finding that most inner nuclear membrane proteins use only the peripheral channels, but some apparently extend intrinsically disordered domains containing nuclear localization signals into the central channel for directed nuclear transport. These nucleoplasmic signals are critical for central channel transport as their mutation blocks use of the central channels; however, the mutated proteins can still complete their translocation using only the peripheral channels, albeit at a reduced rate. Such proteins can still translocate using only the peripheral channels when central channel is blocked, but blocking the peripheral channels blocks translocation through both channels. This suggests that peripheral channel transport is the default mechanism that was adapted in evolution to include aspects of receptor-mediated central channel transport for directed trafficking of certain membrane proteins.

A multistage sequencing strategy pinpoints novel candidate alleles for Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy and supports gene misregulation as its pathomechanism.

BACKGROUND: As genome-wide approaches prove difficult with genetically heterogeneous orphan diseases, we developed a new approach to identify candidate genes. We applied this to Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD), characterised by early onset contractures, slowly progressive muscular wasting, and life-threatening heart conduction disturbances with wide intra- and inter-familial clinical variability. Roughly half of EDMD patients are linked to six genes encoding nuclear envelope proteins, but the disease mechanism remains unclear because the affected proteins function in both cell mechanics and genome regulation. METHODS: A primer library was generated to test for mutations in 301 genes from four categories: (I) all known EDMD-linked genes; (II) genes mutated in related muscular dystrophies; (III) candidates generated by exome sequencing in five families; (IV) functional candidates - other muscle nuclear envelope proteins functioning in mechanical/genome processes affected in EDMD. This was used to sequence 56 unlinked patients with EDMD-like phenotype. FINDINGS: Twenty-one patients could be clearly assigned: 18 with mutations in genes of similar muscular dystrophies; 3 with previously missed mutations in EDMD-linked genes. The other categories yielded novel candidate genes, most encoding nuclear envelope proteins with functions in gene regulation. INTERPRETATION: Our multi-pronged approach identified new disease alleles and many new candidate EDMD genes. Their known functions strongly argue the EDMD pathomechanism is from altered gene regulation and mechanotransduction due to connectivity of candidates from the nuclear envelope to the plasma membrane. This approach highlights the value of testing for related diseases using primer libraries and may be applied for other genetically heterogeneous orphan diseases. FUNDING: The Wellcome Trust, Muscular Dystrophy UK, Medical Research Council, European Community's Seventh Framework Programme "Integrated European -omics research project for diagnosis and therapy in rare neuromuscular and neurodegenerative diseases (NEUROMICS)".

Host Vesicle Fusion Protein VAPB Contributes to the Nuclear Egress Stage of Herpes Simplex Virus Type-1 (HSV-1) Replication.

The primary envelopment/de-envelopment of Herpes viruses during nuclear exit is poorly understood. In Herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1), proteins pUL31 and pUL34 are critical, while pUS3 and some others contribute; however, efficient membrane fusion may require additional host proteins. We postulated that vesicle fusion proteins present in the nuclear envelope might facilitate primary envelopment and/or de-envelopment fusion with the outer nuclear membrane. Indeed, a subpopulation of vesicle-associated membrane protein-associated protein B (VAPB), a known vesicle trafficking protein, was present in the nuclear membrane co-locating with pUL34. VAPB knockdown significantly reduced both cell-associated and supernatant virus titers. Moreover, VAPB depletion reduced cytoplasmic accumulation of virus particles and increased levels of nuclear encapsidated viral DNA. These results suggest that VAPB is an important player in the exit of primary enveloped HSV-1 virions from the nucleus. Importantly, VAPB knockdown did not alter pUL34, calnexin or GM-130 localization during infection, arguing against an indirect effect of VAPB on cellular vesicles and trafficking. Immunogold-labelling electron microscopy confirmed VAPB presence in nuclear membranes and moreover associated with primary enveloped HSV-1 particles. These data suggest that VAPB could be a cellular component of a complex that facilitates UL31/UL34/US3-mediated HSV-1 nuclear egress.

Tissue-specific NETs alter genome organization and regulation even in a heterologous system.

Different cell types exhibit distinct patterns of 3D genome organization that correlate with changes in gene expression in tissue and differentiation systems. Several tissue-specific nuclear envelope transmembrane proteins (NETs) have been found to influence the spatial positioning of genes and chromosomes that normally occurs during tissue differentiation. Here we study 3 such NETs: NET29, NET39, and NET47, which are expressed preferentially in fat, muscle and liver, respectively. We found that even when exogenously expressed in a heterologous system they can specify particular genome organization patterns and alter gene expression. Each NET affected largely different subsets of genes. Notably, the liver-specific NET47 upregulated many genes in HT1080 fibroblast cells that are normally upregulated in hepatogenesis, showing that tissue-specific NETs can favor expression patterns associated with the tissue where the NET is normally expressed. Similarly, global profiling of peripheral chromatin after exogenous expression of these NETs using lamin B1 DamID revealed that each NET affected the nuclear positioning of distinct sets of genomic regions with a significant tissue-specific component. Thus NET influences on genome organization can contribute to gene expression changes associated with differentiation even in the absence of other factors and overt cellular differentiation changes.

Anchoring a Leviathan: How the Nuclear Membrane Tethers the Genome.

It is well established that the nuclear envelope has many distinct direct connections to chromatin that contribute to genome organization. The functional consequences of genome organization on gene regulation are less clear. Even less understood is how interactions of lamins and nuclear envelope transmembrane proteins (NETs) with chromatin can produce anchoring tethers that can withstand the physical forces of and on the genome. Chromosomes are the largest molecules in the cell, making megadalton protein structures like the nuclear pore complexes and ribosomes seem small by comparison. Thus to withstand strong forces from chromosome dynamics an anchoring tether is likely to be much more complex than a single protein-protein or protein-DNA interaction. Here we will briefly review known NE-genome interactions that likely contribute to spatial genome organization, postulate in the context of experimental data how these anchoring tethers contribute to gene regulation, and posit several hypotheses for the physical nature of these tethers that need to be investigated experimentally. Significantly, disruption of these anchoring tethers and the subsequent consequences for gene regulation could explain how mutations in nuclear envelope proteins cause diseases ranging from muscular dystrophy to lipodystrophy to premature aging progeroid syndromes. The two favored hypotheses for nuclear envelope protein involvement in disease are (1) weakening nuclear and cellular mechanical stability, and (2) disrupting genome organization and gene regulation. Considerable experimental support has been obtained for both. The integration of both mechanical and gene expression defects in the disruption of anchoring tethers could provide a unifying hypothesis consistent with both.

Decreased mTOR signalling reduces mitochondrial ROS in brain via accumulation of the telomerase protein TERT within mitochondria.

Telomerase in its canonical function maintains telomeres in dividing cells. In addition, the telomerase protein TERT has non-telomeric functions such as shuttling to mitochondria resulting in a decreased oxidative stress, DNA damage and apoptosis. TERT protein persists in adult neurons and can co-localise to mitochondria under various stress conditions. We show here that TERT expression decreased in mouse brain during aging while release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from the mitochondrial electron transport chain increased. Dietary restriction (DR) caused accumulation of TERT protein in mouse brain mitochondria correlating to decreased ROS release and improved learning and spatial short-term memory. Decreased mTOR signalling is a mediator of DR. Accordingly, feeding mice with rapamycin increased brain mitochondrial TERT and reduced ROS release. Importantly, the beneficial effects of rapamycin on mitochondrial function were absent in brains and fibroblasts from first generation TERT -/- mice, and when TERT shuttling was inhibited by the Src kinase inhibitor bosutinib. Taken together, our data suggests that the mTOR signalling pathway impinges on the mitochondrial localisation of TERT protein, which might in turn contribute to the protection of the brain by DR or rapamycin against age-associated mitochondrial ROS increase and cognitive decline.

TMEM120A and B: Nuclear Envelope Transmembrane Proteins Important for Adipocyte Differentiation.

Recent work indicates that the nuclear envelope is a major signaling node for the cell that can influence tissue differentiation processes. Here we present two nuclear envelope trans-membrane proteins TMEM120A and TMEM120B that are paralogs encoded by the Tmem120A and Tmem120B genes. The TMEM120 proteins are expressed preferentially in fat and both are induced during 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation. Knockdown of one or the other protein altered expression of several genes required for adipocyte differentiation, Gata3, Fasn, Glut4, while knockdown of both together additionally affected Pparg and Adipoq. The double knockdown also increased the strength of effects, reducing for example Glut4 levels by 95% compared to control 3T3-L1 cells upon pharmacologically induced differentiation. Accordingly, TMEM120A and B knockdown individually and together impacted on adipocyte differentiation/metabolism as measured by lipid accumulation through binding of Oil Red O and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscopy (CARS). The nuclear envelope is linked to several lipodystrophies through mutations in lamin A; however, lamin A is widely expressed. Thus it is possible that the TMEM120A and B fat-specific nuclear envelope transmembrane proteins may play a contributory role in the tissue-specific pathology of this disorder or in the wider problem of obesity.

PI3K/mTORC2 regulates TGF-ß/Activin signalling by modulating Smad2/3 activity via linker phosphorylation.

Crosstalk between the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and the transforming growth factor-ß signalling pathways play an important role in regulating many cellular functions. However, the molecular mechanisms underpinning this crosstalk remain unclear. Here, we report that PI3K signalling antagonizes the Activin-induced definitive endoderm (DE) differentiation of human embryonic stem cells by attenuating the duration of Smad2/3 activation via the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2). Activation of mTORC2 regulates the phosphorylation of the Smad2/3-T220/T179 linker residue independent of Akt, CDK and Erk activity. This phosphorylation primes receptor-activated Smad2/3 for recruitment of the E3 ubiquitin ligase Nedd4L, which in turn leads to their degradation. Inhibition of PI3K/mTORC2 reduces this phosphorylation and increases the duration of Smad2/3 activity, promoting a more robust mesendoderm and endoderm differentiation. These findings present a new and direct crosstalk mechanism between these two pathways in which mTORC2 functions as a novel and critical mediator.

Low abundance of the matrix arm of complex I in mitochondria predicts longevity in mice.

Mitochondrial function is an important determinant of the ageing process; however, the mitochondrial properties that enable longevity are not well understood. Here we show that optimal assembly of mitochondrial complex I predicts longevity in mice. Using an unbiased high-coverage high-confidence approach, we demonstrate that electron transport chain proteins, especially the matrix arm subunits of complex I, are decreased in young long-living mice, which is associated with improved complex I assembly, higher complex I-linked state 3 oxygen consumption rates and decreased superoxide production, whereas the opposite is seen in old mice. Disruption of complex I assembly reduces oxidative metabolism with concomitant increase in mitochondrial superoxide production. This is rescued by knockdown of the mitochondrial chaperone, prohibitin. Disrupted complex I assembly causes premature senescence in primary cells. We propose that lower abundance of free catalytic complex I components supports complex I assembly, efficacy of substrate utilization and minimal ROS production, enabling enhanced longevity.

Mitochondrial telomerase protects cancer cells from nuclear DNA damage and apoptosis.

Most cancer cells express high levels of telomerase and proliferate indefinitely. In addition to its telomere maintenance function, telomerase also has a pro-survival function resulting in an increased resistance against DNA damage and decreased apoptosis induction. However, the molecular mechanisms for this protective function remain elusive and it is unclear whether it is connected to telomere maintenance or is rather a non-telomeric function of the telomerase protein, TERT. It was shown recently that the protein subunit of telomerase can shuttle from the nucleus to the mitochondria upon oxidative stress where it protects mitochondrial function and decreases intracellular oxidative stress. Here we show that endogenous telomerase (TERT protein) shuttles from the nucleus into mitochondria upon oxidative stress in cancer cells and analyzed the nuclear exclusion patterns of endogenous telomerase after treatment with hydrogen peroxide in different cell lines. Cell populations excluded TERT from the nucleus upon oxidative stress in a heterogeneous fashion. We found a significant correlation between nuclear localization of telomerase and high DNA damage, while cells which excluded telomerase from the nucleus displayed no or very low DNA damage. We modeled nuclear and mitochondrial telomerase using organelle specific localization vectors and confirmed that mitochondrial localization of telomerase protects the nucleus from inflicted DNA damage and apoptosis while, in contrast, nuclear localization of telomerase correlated with higher amounts of DNA damage and apoptosis. It is known that nuclear DNA damage can be caused by mitochondrially generated reactive oxygen species (ROS). We demonstrate here that mitochondrial localization of telomerase specifically prevents nuclear DNA damage by decreasing levels of mitochondrial ROS. We suggest that this decrease of oxidative stress might be a possible cause for high stress resistance of cancer cells and could be especially important for cancer stem cells.

Adult-onset, short-term dietary restriction reduces cell senescence in mice.

Dietary restriction (DR) extends the lifespan of a wide variety of species and reduces the incidence of major age-related diseases. Cell senescence has been proposed as one causal mechanism for tissue and organism ageing. We show for the first time that adult-onset, short-term DR reduced frequencies of senescent cells in the small intestinal epithelium and liver of mice, which are tissues known to accumulate increased numbers of senescent cells with advancing age. This reduction was associated with improved telomere maintenance without increased telomerase activity. We also found a decrease in cumulative oxidative stress markers in the same compartments despite absence of significant changes in steady-state oxidative stress markers at the whole tissue level. The data suggest the possibility that reduction of cell senescence may be a primary consequence of DR which in turn may explain known effects of DR such as improved mitochondrial function and reduced production of reactive oxygen species.