Application of the ORBEYE three-dimensional exoscope for microsurgical procedures.

BACKGROUND: Advances in digital imaging, screen technology, and optics have led to the development of extracorporeal telescopes, also known as exoscopes, as alternatives to surgical loupes (SLs) and traditional operating microscopes (OMs) for surgical magnification. Theoretical advantages of the exoscope over conventional devices include improved surgeon ergonomics; superior three-dimensional, high-definition optics; and greater ease-of-use. The ORBEYE exoscope, in particular, has demonstrated early efficacy in the surgical arena. The purpose of this study was to compare the ORBEYE with conventional microscopy. METHODS: In this case-control pilot study, we compared the ORBEYE (n = 22) with conventional microscopy (n = 27) across 49 consecutive microsurgical cases during a 6-week period. Both visualization methods consisted of breast, and head and neck cases, while the ORBEYE was also used for extremity and lymphedema microsurgical cases. The ORBEYE was utilized during flap dissection and microvascular anastomosis. Baseline demographics, operative time, ischemia time, and intra- and postoperative microvascular complications were examined and compared. Attending surgeons completed an ergonomics and performance survey postoperatively comparing the ORBEYE with their previous use of SL/OM using a 5-point Likert scale. RESULTS: There was no difference in operative time (507 ± 132 min vs. 522 ± 139, p = .714), ischemia time (77.9 ± 31.4 min vs. 77.5 ± 36.0, p = .972), or microsurgical complications (0% vs. 4%, p = 1) between the ORBEYE and conventional microscopy groups. In a survey administered immediately postoperatively, surgeons reported favorable ergonomics, excellent image quality, and ease of equipment manipulation using the exoscope. CONCLUSIONS: The ORBEYE is an effective microsurgical tool and may be considered as an alternative to conventional optical magnification technology.

Application of Three-Dimensional Printed Vascular Modeling as a Perioperative Guide to Perforator Mapping and Pedicle Dissection during Abdominal Flap Harvest for Breast Reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: Advancements in three-dimensional (3D) printing have enabled production of patient-specific guides to aid perforator mapping and pedicle dissection during abdominal flap harvest. We present our early experience using this tool to navigate deep inferior epigastric artery (DIEA) topography and evaluate its impact on operative efficiency and clinical outcomes. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Between January 2013 and December 2018, a total of 50 women underwent computed tomographic angiography (CTA)-guided perforator mapping prior to abdominal flap breast reconstruction, with (n = 9) and without (n = 41) 3D-printed vascular modeling (3DVM). Models were assessed for their accuracy in identifying perforator location and source-vessel anatomy, as determined by operative findings from 18 hemi-abdomens. The margin of error (MOE) for perforator localization using 3DVM was calculated and compared with CTA-derived measurements for the same patients. Flap harvest times, outcomes, and complications for patients who were preoperatively mapped using 3DVM versus CTA alone were analyzed. RESULTS: Overall, complete concordance was observed between 3DVM and operative findings with regards to perforator number, source-vessel origin, and DIEA branching pattern. By comparison, CTA interpretation of these parameters inaccurately identified branching pattern and perforator source-vessel origin in 28 and 33% of hemi-abdomens, respectively (p = 0.045 and p = 0.02). Compared with operative measurements, the average MOE for perforator localization using 3DVM was significantly lower than that obtained from CTA alone (0.81 vs. 8.71 mm, p < 0.0001). Reference of 3D-printed models, intraoperatively, was associated with a mean reduction in flap harvest time by 21 minutes (60.7 vs. 81.7 minutes, p < 0.001). Although not statistically significant, rates of perforator-level injury, microvascular insufficiency, and fat necrosis were lower among patients mapped using 3DVM. CONCLUSION: The results of this study support the accuracy of 3DVM for identifying DIEA topography and perforator location. Application of this technology may translate to enhanced operative efficiency and fewer perfusion-related complications for patients undergoing abdominal free flap breast reconstruction.

Long Term Follow Up of a Vascularized Osteocutaneous Free Flap for Reconstruction in Charcot Neuroarthropathy: A Case Report.

Vascularized osteocutaneous free flaps have seen increasing use in foot and ankle surgery for the repair of bony defects secondary to chronic nonunion, osteomyelitis, and fractures. One example is the Medial Femoral Condyle (MFC) Flap. The utility of the MFC flap for the repair of a bony defect in a diabetic patient, however, has yet to be explored. We report the long-term results of a case describing the use of an MFC flap to reconstruct an osseous defect resulting from first metatarsophalangeal joint resection in a diabetic patient.

Lower Extremity Free Tissue Transfer in the Setting of Thrombophilia: Analysis of Perioperative Anticoagulation Protocols and Predictors of Flap Failure.

BACKGROUND: No consensus exists regarding the optimal strategy for perioperative thromboprophylaxis in high-risk microsurgical populations. We present our experience with lower extremity free tissue transfer (FTT) in thrombophilic patients and compare outcomes between non-stratified and risk-stratified anticoagulation protocols. METHODS: Between January 2013 and December 2017, 57 patients with documented thrombophilia underwent FTT for non-traumatic, lower extremity reconstruction by a single surgeon. Patients were divided into two cohorts based on the introduction of a novel, risk-stratified algorithm for perioperative anticoagulation in July 2015. Demographic data, chemoprophylaxis profiles, flap outcomes, and complications were retrospectively compared across time periods. RESULTS: Fifty-seven free flaps were performed in hypercoagulable patients treated with non-stratified (n = 27) or risk-stratified (n = 30) thromboprophylaxis. Patients in the risk-stratified cohort received intravenous heparin more often than non-stratified controls (73 vs. 15%, p < 0.001). Lower rates of total (3 vs. 19%, p = 0.06) and partial (10 vs. 37%, p = 0.025) flap loss were observed among risk-stratified patients, paralleling a significant reduction in the prevalence of postoperative thrombotic events (1.2 vs. 12.3%, p = 0.004). While therapeutic versus low-dose heparin infusion was associated with improved flap survival following intraoperative microvascular compromise (86 vs. 25%, p = 0.04), salvage rates in the setting of postoperative thrombosis remained 0%, regardless of protocol. On multivariate analysis, recipient-vessel calcification (odds ratio [OR]: 16.7, p = 0.02) and anastomotic revision (OR, 3.3; p = 0.04) were independently associated with total flap failure. CONCLUSION: Selective therapeutic anticoagulation may improve microsurgical outcomes in high-risk patients with thrombophilia. Our findings highlight the importance of meticulous technique and recipient-vessel selection as critical determinants of flap success in this population.

Limb Salvage and Functional Outcomes following Free Tissue Transfer for the Treatment of Recalcitrant Diabetic Foot Ulcers.

BACKGROUND: Recent evidence documenting high success rates following microvascular diabetic foot reconstruction has led to a paradigm shift in favor of more aggressive limb preservation. The primary aim of this study was to examine reconstructive and functional outcomes in patients who underwent free tissue transfer (FTT) for recalcitrant diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) at our tertiary referral center for advanced limb salvage. METHODS: Between June 2013 and June 2016, 29 patients underwent lower extremity FTT for diabetic foot reconstruction by the senior author (K.K.E.). In all cases, microsurgical reconstruction was offered as an alternative to major amputation for the management of recalcitrant DFUs. Overall rates of flap survival, limb salvage, and postoperative ambulation were evaluated. The lower extremity functional scale (LEFS) score was used to assess functional outcomes after surgery. RESULTS: Overall rates of flap success and lower limb salvage were 93 and 79%, respectively. Flap failure occurred in two patients with delayed microvascular compromise. Seven patients in this series ultimately required below-knee amputation secondary to recalcitrant infection (n = 5), intractable pain (n = 1), and limb ischemia (n = 1). The average interval between FTT and major amputation was 8 months (r, 0.2-15 months). Postoperative ambulation was confirmed in 25 patients (86%) after a mean final follow-up of 25 months (r, 10-48 months). The average LEFS score for all patients was 46 out of 80 points (r, 12-80 points), indicating the ability to ambulate in the community with some limitations. CONCLUSION: FTT for the management of recalcitrant DFUs is associated with high rates of reconstructive success and postoperative ambulation. However, several patients will eventually require major amputation for reasons unrelated to ultimate flap survival. These data should be used to counsel patients regarding the risks, functional implications, and prognosis of microvascular diabetic foot reconstruction.

Outcomes After Combined Radical Resection and Targeted Biologic Therapy for the Management of Recalcitrant Hidradenitis Suppurativa.

BACKGROUND: Trials demonstrating the efficacy of biologic therapy for moderate to severe hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) have inspired new multidisciplinary treatment strategies. We present our experience with combined biologic and surgical therapy for recalcitrant HS. METHODS: Between 2011 and 2014, 21 patients (57 cases) with Hurley Stage III HS underwent radical resection with delayed primary closure alone, or in combination with adjuvant biologic therapy. Demographic data, treatment regimen, outcomes, and complications were retrospectively reviewed for all cases. RESULTS: Eleven patients underwent combined surgical and biologic therapy, whereas radical resection alone was performed in 10 patients. The average soft tissue deficit, before closure, for the combined and surgery-only patients was 56 cm and 48.5 cm, respectively (P = 0.66). Biologic agents including infliximab (n = 8) and ustekinumab (n = 3) were initiated 2 to 3 weeks after closure and were continued for an average of 10.5 months. Recurrence was noted in 19% (4/29) and 38.5% (10/26) of previously treated sites for combined and surgery-only patients (P < 0.01). For the combined cohort, the disease-free interval was approximately 1 year longer on average (P < 0.001); however, this difference was reduced to 4.5 months when considering time to recurrence after cessation of biologic therapy (P = 0.09). New disease developed in 18% (2/11) and 50% (5/10) of combined and surgery-only patients, respectively (P < 001). No adverse events were noted among patients who received biologic therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Lower rates of recurrence and disease progression, as well as a longer disease-free interval may be achieved with the use of adjuvant biologic therapy after radical resection for recalcitrant HS.

Changes in Wrist Motion After Simulated Scapholunate Arthrodesis: A Cadaveric Study.

PURPOSE: A high incidence of nonunion and relatively poor outcomes with prior fixation techniques has precluded scapholunate (SL) arthrodesis as a standard treatment for SL instability. Our purpose was to determine the impact on range of motion (ROM) of simulated SL arthrodesis via headless screw fixation. METHODS: We performed baseline wrist ROM for 10 cadaveric wrists using a standardized mounting-and-weights system. Extension, flexion, radial deviation, ulnar deviation, dart-thrower's extension, and dart-thrower's flexion were assessed. Two 3.0-mm headless compression screws were inserted across the SL joint to simulate SL arthrodesis. Goniometric measurements and fluoroscopic imaging were repeated to assess ROM differences after simulated SL arthrodesis. We assessed SL angle and gap during testing to ensure there was no significant motion between the scaphoid and lunate, thus confirming stable simulated fusion. Differences in ROM were compared between baseline and simulated SL arthrodesis using paired t tests. RESULTS: Mean SL angle remained constant between pre- and post-arthrodesis imaging (47° ± 6° vs 46° ± 4°) and did not change during post-arthrodesis ROM testing, indicating a stable simulated fusion. Compared with baseline, SL arthrodesis had a statistically significant reduction in maximum flexion of 6° and 9° based on fluoroscopy and goniometry, respectively, in dart-thrower's extension of 5° and 9° based on fluoroscopy and goniometry, respectively, and in dart-thrower's flexion of 6° for both fluoroscopy and goniometry. No other ROMs after simulated SL arthrodesis were significantly different compared with baseline. CONCLUSIONS: The effects of simulated SL arthrodesis on radiocarpal and midcarpal motion compare favorably with motion after SL soft tissue repair and other reconstructive techniques that have been previously reported. The statistically significant decreases in wrist flexion and dart-thrower's extension-flexion after simulated SL arthrodesis are of questionable clinical importance. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These results may support reconsidering SL arthrodesis as a viable treatment option for acute or chronic SL instability with regard to apparent minimal adverse effects on functional wrist ROM.

Donor-Site Morbidity Following Free Tissue Harvest from the Thigh: A Systematic Review and Pooled Analysis of Complications.

Background Donor-site morbidity significantly influences patient satisfaction and quality of life following reconstructive surgery. The relevant donor-site morbidities associated with more commonly utilized thigh-based flaps are reviewed. Methods A systematic search of the MEDLINE and Cochrane databases from 1994 to 2014 was conducted to identify all reports of "anterolateral thigh (ALT)," "vastus lateralis (VL)," "anteromedial thigh (AMT)," "transverse upper gracilis (TUG)," tensor fascia latae (TFL)," "gracilis," and "rectus femoris (RF)," flaps. Only studies that investigated donor-site outcomes related to pain, paresthesia, wound dehiscence, infection, hematoma, seroma, contour deformity, and/or objective functional performance were included. Case series or anecdotal reports with less than five flaps, non-English, and animal studies were excluded. Results A total of 116 articles representing 4,554 flaps were reviewed, including 2,922 ALT/VL, 148 AMT, 436 TUG, 278 TFL, 527 gracilis, and 243 RF flaps. The most frequently cited donor-site complication was paresthesia (range: 0-36.4%), followed by wound dehiscence (range: 0.9-8.3%), contour deformity (range: 0-5.2%), pain (range: 0-6.3%), and seroma (range: 0.4-2.0%). Despite mixed results regarding functional performance, pooled-analysis of dynamometric studies demonstrated a significant reduction in strength only after RF flap harvest (21%). Conclusions Donor-site morbidity for thigh-flaps is minimal and appears to be well-tolerated by the majority of patients. Nevertheless, the appropriate flap selection is highly individualized, and patients must be informed of potential complications and morbidities specific to each flap. We have established the most current review of donor-site morbidity for thigh-based flaps to aid the surgeon in this important discussion.

Lower Extremity Flap Salvage in Thrombophilic Patients: Managing Expectations in the Setting of Microvascular Thrombosis.

Background Undiagnosed thrombophilia is a risk factor for flap failure; however, its prevalence in patients undergoing microsurgical reconstruction is unknown. We present our experience with free tissue transfer (FTT) in a high-risk population of lower extremity patients with documented thrombophilia, identified through preoperative screening. Methods Between January 2012 and April 2014, 41 patients underwent 43 free flaps for nontraumatic, lower extremity reconstruction by a single surgeon. Patients were preoperatively screened for thrombophilia using historical information and standardized laboratory testing. Demographic data, perioperative management, outcomes, and salvage rates for thrombophilic and nonthrombophilic cohorts were compared. Results Routine preoperative screening identified 52 thrombophilic traits among 25 patients in this series (61%). The most common traits were the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 4G/5G variant (n = 12) and the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase A1298C (n = 10) and C677T (n = 9) polymorphisms. While success rates were similar between thrombophilic and nonthrombophilic patients (84 vs. 94%; p = 0.15), thrombotic complications (25 vs. 14%; p = 0.09) and flap failure following postoperative thrombosis (100 vs. 33%; p = 0.05) appeared to be more common in patients with thrombophilia. On average, microvascular complications manifested later in the setting of thrombophilia (mean 4.8 days vs. 18 hours; p = 0.20) and were associated with a worse overall prognosis (salvage rate, 0 vs. 67%; p = 0.05). Conclusions Despite high success rates, thrombophilia appears to increase the risk of nonsalvageability following lower extremity FTT. This information should be used to help counsel patients regarding the risks and benefits of microsurgical reconstruction, as salvage rates following postoperative thrombotic events approach 0% in the presence of thrombophilia.

Free tissue transfer after targeted endovascular reperfusion for complex lower extremity reconstruction: setting the stage for success in the presence of mutlivessel disease.

Recent advances in both microsurgical and endovascular techniques have redefined our approach to complex lower extremity reconstruction in high-risk patients with multivessel disease. When used as an adjunct to free tissue transfer, targeted endovascular therapy has been suggested to optimize recipient-site hemodynamics and promote flap survival in regions of compromised distal blood flow. With a paucity of published outcomes to support this approach, however, the perceived benefits derived from adjunctive endovascular therapy remain largely anecdotal. In this report, we present the outcomes and complications for 3 patients in whom preoperative endovascular therapy was used to improve both direct and collateral distal perfusion and recipient-vessel caliber. Flap survival in this series was 100%, and all patients remained ambulatory at a mean final follow-up of 24.7 months. Minor flap necrosis, necessitating debridement and skin grafting, was seen in one patient, who ultimately required a contralateral below-knee amputation secondary to nonsalvageable arterial disease. All patients were satisfied with respect to pain, function, and cosmetic appearance. On the basis of our experience and previously reported cases, we advocate a role for prereconstructive endovascular therapy as part of a multidisciplinary approach to functional limb salvage in patients with advanced arterial disease.

Intraosseous venous malformations of the zygoma: clarification of misconceptions regarding diagnosis and management.

Primary intraosseous venous malformations affecting the zygoma are rare vascular lesions, with only 35 cases reported in the surgical literature. Despite the establishment of the binary classification system, which serves to distinguish vascular tumors from malformations, inappropriate use of the term "hemangioma" to describe a variety of distinct vascular anomalies remains widespread. The authors present 3 cases of zygomatic intraosseous venous malformations and summarize the clinical, radiographic, and immunohistochemical features of these lesions. In each case, an insidious clinical course, combined with the pathognomonic finding of radiating trabeculae on computed tomography, suggests the diagnosis of intraosseous venous malformation. Negative glucose transporter isoform 1 immunoreactivity and histopathological analysis were used to reinforce this diagnosis in 1 patient. Management was individualized in each case, based on symptom complex and aesthetic concern. Given that the therapeutic approach to vascular anomalies is dependent on accurate diagnosis, resolution of semantic matters will optimize the management of these lesions.

Combined free tissue transfer for the management of composite Achilles defects: functional outcomes and patient satisfaction following thigh-based vascularized reconstruction with a neotendon construct.

BACKGROUND: Functional outcomes and quality-of-life measures following salvage reconstruction of composite Achilles/posterior leg defects are limited. We present our experience with combined Achilles defect reconstruction utilizing free tissue transfer with vascularized neotendon constructs. METHODS: Between 2011 and 2012, six patients underwent vascularized reconstruction of complex Achilles defects by a single surgeon. Demographic and functional data were collected for each patient. Subjective evaluation and quality-of-life measures were obtained preoperatively and postoperatively using American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Score (AOFAS) Ankle-Hindfoot and SF-36 scores. Early and late complications were noted for each case. RESULTS: All defects were reconstructed utilizing vascularized composite free tissue from the thigh. Average soft tissue defect was 76.7 cm(2) (range, 40-90 cm2) with a tendon gap of 7.8 cm (range, 5-10 cm). Mean follow-up was 17 months (range, 15-23 months). Flap survival was 100%. Overall range of motion of the reconstructed side was 82% of the unaffected side (48.2 degrees vs. 59 degrees, p = 0.004). Average percent increase in AOFAS and SF-36 scores were 71% (54 vs. 93, p = 0.0005) and 22% (86 vs. 104, p = 0.003), respectively. Operative revision was required for two patients with delayed-onset soft tissue infections and one donor site hematoma. Distal flap ischemia was managed with hyperbaric oxygen therapy in one patient. Functional and esthetic outcomes were judged good to excellent by all patients. CONCLUSIONS: Free tissue transfer with vascularized tendon reconstruction is a viable option for combined Achilles tendon/posterior leg defects, as both functional and quality-of-life measures appeared to be significantly improved at 1-year follow-up.

Fractures of the pediatric zygoma: a review of the clinical trends, management strategies, and outcomes associated with zygomatic fractures in children.

Fractures of the pediatric zygoma are uncommon and are often associated with high-impact trauma, as evidenced by the relatively increased prevalence of concomitant injuries observed in these patients. Despite advances in the prevention, diagnosis, and management of pediatric craniofacial injuries, data regarding zygomatic fractures in children remain poorly established. The diagnosis of zygomatic disruption is more difficult in children and requires the maintenance of a high index of suspicion on behalf of the surgeon. Early recognition and implementation of appropriate therapy are critical and depend on the acquisition of a thorough history and physical examination as well as the accurate interpretation of computed tomographic imaging. Options for management depend on fracture severity and can range from observation or closed reduction in nondisplaced or only minimally displaced fractures, to open reduction and internal fixation in fractures that are comminuted or severely displaced. Currently, there is a lack of level I evidence evaluating the long-term consequences associated with pediatric zygomatic fractures and their management. A review of the epidemiology, clinical characteristics, diagnosis, and management of pediatric zygomatic fractures is essential for optimizing function and aesthetic outcomes in children who sustain these injuries.

Bridging the Knowledge Gap: An Examination of the Ideal Postoperative Autologous Breast Reconstruction Educational Material with A/B Testing.

BACKGROUND: Poor health literacy is an epidemic in the United States, associated with higher mortality rates and poor postoperative care. Autologous breast reconstruction is highly complex, and the identification of complications is difficult even for non-plastic surgeon practitioners. The authors sought to explore the problem of health literacy in this context and identify the ideal postoperative patient education materials. METHODS: Available online postoperative patient education materials for autologous breast reconstruction and corresponding readability scores were assessed. To derive the ideal formula for materials, the authors crowd-sourced quizzes with A/B testing, a method to examine the outcome of two versions of a single variable. The authors implemented their findings and compared performance on postoperative quizzes with and without oral reinforcement. RESULTS: Of the 12 postoperative flap complication patient education materials found through an Internet search, the average grade level readability level was 9.9. Only one of 12 (8.3 percent) mentioned symptoms and signs of flap compromise. The A/B tests result revealed that text approximately 400 to 800 words written on a sixth-grade level led to the highest quiz scores. Patients scored significantly higher on the postoperative day-2 quiz when patient education materials, modeled after these findings, were reinforced with oral presentation (p = 0.0059). Retention of high quiz scores remained at postoperative day 10. CONCLUSIONS: Currently available patient education materials are at a high reading level and lack specific information on the identification of flap compromise. The authors propose the most effective postoperative instructions to be approximately 400 to 800 words written on a grade-six level with images and oral reinforcement.

Limb Salvage Rates and Functional Outcomes Using a Longitudinal Slit Arteriotomy End-to-Side Anastomosis for Limb-Threatening Defects in a High-Risk Patient Population.

BACKGROUND: Limb salvage techniques using free tissue transfer in patients with chronic wounds caused by longstanding osteomyelitis, diabetes, and peripheral vascular disease are technically challenging. The longitudinal slit arteriotomy end-to-side anastomosis is the authors' preferred technique because it is the least invasive arteriotomy and is especially important for diseased recipient arteries. The authors reviewed highly comorbid patients who underwent free tissue transfer with this technique to understand the success rates, overall outcomes, and long-term limb salvage rates. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed to analyze outcomes of free tissue transfer using longitudinal slit arteriotomy end-to-side anastomosis between 2012 and 2018 performed by the senior surgeon (K.K.E.). RESULTS: One hundred fifteen free flaps were identified. Patients were, on average, 55.9 years old, with a body mass index of 29.2 kg/m. Comorbidities included osteomyelitis (83.5 percent), hypertension (60.9 percent), tobacco use (46.1 percent), diabetes (44.3 percent), peripheral vascular disease (44.3 percent), hypercoagulability (35.7 percent), and arterial calcifications (17.4 percent). Overall flap success was 93.0 percent; 27.8 percent required reoperation perioperatively because of complications. On univariate analysis, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and hypercoagulability were significantly associated with eventual amputation (p < 0.05). Multivariate analysis showed that intraoperative thrombosis and take back was independently associated with flap failure. There was an overall limb salvage rate of 83.5 percent, and of those salvaged, 92.7 percent were ambulating without a prosthesis at a mean follow-up of 1.53 years. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest series of longitudinal slit arteriotomy end-to-side anastomosis for patients undergoing free tissue transfer for limb-threatening defects in the compromised host. Overall flap success, limb salvage rates, and functional outcomes are high using this technique. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, IV.

Combining Abdominal Flaps and Implants in the Breast Reconstruction Patient: A Systematic and Retrospective Review of Complications and Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Implants offer a method for augmenting abdominal flaps in the setting of deficient volume in breast reconstruction. They may be placed immediately at the time of reconstruction or on a delayed basis. The authors seek to compare outcomes from a single surgeon and previously published studies. METHODS: A systematic review was performed, querying multiple databases. A retrospective review was conducted for patients who underwent abdominally based flap breast reconstruction and implant placement between July of 2005 and August of 2015 performed by the senior author (M.Y.N.). RESULTS: A systematic review of the literature yielded four articles, for a total of 96 patients (142 breasts) included for systematic review. Eighty-seven breasts (61 percent) were reconstructed with immediate implant at the time of flap reconstruction and 55 breasts (39 percent) had a staged approach to implant placement. Complications were noted in 28 breasts (32 percent) following immediate placement and in 10 breasts (18 percent) following staged placement. A total of 53 patients (79 breasts) were retrospectively reviewed, all of whom underwent reconstruction in a staged manner. Twelve breasts (15 percent) were found to have a flap- or implant-related complication; 97.5 percent of implants/flap reconstructions were successful, with a 54 percent revision rate. When pooling systematic and retrospective data, there was a significant difference in complication rates between the staged and immediate reconstruction cohorts (p < 0.001) in favor of the staged approach. CONCLUSIONS: The literature supports a higher rate of implant-related complications following immediate implantation at the time of flap reconstruction. The authors' experience with implant placement highlights the safety and effectiveness of the staged approach. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, IV.