Epigenetic upregulation of FKBP5 by aging and stress contributes to NF-κB-driven inflammation and cardiovascular risk.

Aging and psychosocial stress are associated with increased inflammation and disease risk, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. Because both aging and stress are also associated with lasting epigenetic changes, a plausible hypothesis is that stress along the lifespan could confer disease risk through epigenetic effects on molecules involved in inflammatory processes. Here, by combining large-scale analyses in human cohorts with experiments in cells, we report that FKBP5, a protein implicated in stress physiology, contributes to these relations. Across independent human cohorts (total n > 3,000), aging synergized with stress-related phenotypes, measured with childhood trauma and major depression questionnaires, to epigenetically up-regulate FKBP5 expression. These age/stress-related epigenetic effects were recapitulated in a cellular model of replicative senescence, whereby we exposed replicating human fibroblasts to stress (glucocorticoid) hormones. Unbiased genome-wide analyses in human blood linked higher FKBP5 mRNA with a proinflammatory profile and altered NF-κB-related gene networks. Accordingly, experiments in immune cells showed that higher FKBP5 promotes inflammation by strengthening the interactions of NF-κB regulatory kinases, whereas opposing FKBP5 either by genetic deletion (CRISPR/Cas9-mediated) or selective pharmacological inhibition prevented the effects on NF-κB. Further, the age/stress-related epigenetic signature enhanced FKBP5 response to NF-κB through a positive feedback loop and was present in individuals with a history of acute myocardial infarction, a disease state linked to peripheral inflammation. These findings suggest that aging/stress-driven FKBP5-NF-κB signaling mediates inflammation, potentially contributing to cardiovascular risk, and may thus point to novel biomarker and treatment possibilities.

Alterations in glucose concentrations affect DNA methylation at Lrg1 in an ex vivo rat cortical slice model of preterm brain injury.

Preterm birth affects 5-18% of all babies and is associated with neurodevelopmental impairment and increased neuropsychiatric disease risk. Although preterm birth associates with differential DNA methylation at neurodevelopmental genes in buccal DNA, including leucine-rich alpha-2-glycoprotein 1 (LRG1), it is not known whether these differences also occur in the brain, or whether they persist. Thus, there is a need for animal models or in vitro systems in which to undertake longitudinal and mechanistic studies. We used a combination of in vivo rat studies and ex vivo experiments in rat cortical slices to explore their utility in modelling the human preterm brain. We identified temporal changes in DNA methylation at LRG1 in human buccal DNA over the first year of life and found persistent differences in LRG1 methylation between preterm and term infants at 1 year. These developmental changes also occurred in rat brains in vivo, alongside changes in global DNA hydroxymethylation and expression of the ten-eleven translocation (Tet1) enzyme, and were reproducible in ex vivo rat cortical slices. On the basis of the observation that neonatal glucose homeostasis can modify neurodevelopmental outcome, we studied whether glucose concentration affects Lrg1 methylation using cortical slices. Culture of slices in lower glucose concentration was associated with lower Lrg1 methylation, lower global 5hmC and Tet1 expression. Our results suggest that ex vivo organotypic cultures may be useful in the study of biological and environmental influences on the epigenome and that perturbations during early life including glucose concentration can affect methylation at specific genes implicated in neurodevelopment.

Preterm Birth and the Risk of Neurodevelopmental Disorders - Is There a Role for Epigenetic Dysregulation?

Preterm Birth (PTB) accounts for approximately 11% of all births worldwide each year and is a profound physiological stressor in early life. The burden of neuropsychiatric and developmental impairment is high, with severity and prevalence correlated with gestational age at delivery. PTB is a major risk factor for the development of cerebral palsy, lower educational attainment and deficits in cognitive functioning, and individuals born preterm have higher rates of schizophrenia, autistic spectrum disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Factors such as gestational age at birth, systemic inflammation, respiratory morbidity, sub-optimal nutrition, and genetic vulnerability are associated with poor outcome after preterm birth, but the mechanisms linking these factors to adverse long term outcome are poorly understood. One potential mechanism linking PTB with neurodevelopmental effects is changes in the epigenome. Epigenetic processes can be defined as those leading to altered gene expression in the absence of a change in the underlying DNA sequence and include DNA methylation/hydroxymethylation and histone modifications. Such epigenetic modifications may be susceptible to environmental stimuli, and changes may persist long after the stimulus has ceased, providing a mechanism to explain the long-term consequences of acute exposures in early life. Many factors such as inflammation, fluctuating oxygenation and excitotoxicity which are known factors in PTB related brain injury, have also been implicated in epigenetic dysfunction. In this review, we will discuss the potential role of epigenetic dysregulation in mediating the effects of PTB on neurodevelopmental outcome, with specific emphasis on DNA methylation and the α-ketoglutarate dependent dioxygenase family of enzymes.

Prenatal exposure to maternal very severe obesity is associated with impaired neurodevelopment and executive functioning in children.

BackgroundPrenatal maternal obesity has been associated with an increased risk of neurocognitive problems in childhood, but there are fewer studies on executive functioning.MethodsTests and questionnaires to assess neurodevelopment, executive functioning, and the ability to delay gratification were conducted in 113 children (mean (SD)=4.24 (0.63) years of age) born to mothers with very severe obesity (SO, body mass index (BMI)⩾40 kg/m2, n=51) or to lean mothers (BMI⩽25 kg/m2, n=62).ResultsPrenatal maternal SO predicted poorer neurodevelopment (unstandardized regression coefficient (B)=-0.42, 95% confidence interval (CI) (-0.82; -0.02)), worse problem-solving (odd ratio (OR)=0.60, 95% CI (1.13; 0.07)), and fine motor skills (OR=4.91, 95% CI (1.27; 19.04)), poorer executive functioning in areas of attention, inhibitory control, and working memory (standardized B=3.75, 95% CI (1.01; 13.93)) but not in self-gratification delay. The effects were independent of maternal concurrent psychological well-being and child's BMI, but not independent of maternal education.ConclusionFuture studies should investigate whether perinatal management of maternal obesity could prevent adverse outcomes in child neurodevelopment.

Dynamics of DNA methylation at IGF2 in preterm and term infants during the first year of life: an observational study.

BACKGROUND: Preterm infants are at increased risk of cardiometabolic disease in later life. Extrauterine growth restriction, catch-up growth, altered adiposity, and abnormal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity could be predisposing factors. Altered DNA methylation (5-methylcytosine, 5mC) might be one underlying mechanism. We hypothesised that preterm infants have altered 5mC at the linked differentially methylated region 2 (DMR2) of IGF2 and the H19 imprinting control region (H19 ICR) compared with term infants over the first year of life. METHODS: We recruited 46 preterm (range 25 weeks + 2 days' gestation to 31 + 5, mean 28 + 6) and 40 term infants (38 + 3 to 42 + 2 weeks' gestation, mean 40 + 2). Anthropometric variables including body composition were measured at term age and 3 months corrected age with air displacement plethysmography and at 1-year-corrected age with skin-fold thickness. Salivary cortisol was measured at 3 months corrected age after the physical examination. Percentage methylation (%5mC) was analysed with pyrosequencing on buccal DNA. Statistical analysis used Student's t test and multivariate linear regression. FINDINGS: Preterm infants demonstrated growth deficit early in postnatal life but had greater percentage body fat at term age (ß=5·73, p<0·001), but not at 3 months (ß=-0·28, p=0·82). Compared with term infants, preterm infants had a blunted cortisol response to physical examination (mean difference 0·38 µg/dL, p=0·024). At birth, preterm infants had a significant decrease in %5mC at DMR2 compared with term infants at birth (ß=-11·48, p<0·001) and compared with preterm infants at term-corrected age (t=3·13, p=0·01). By term-corrected age, preterm infants had decreased %5mC at both DMR2 (ß=-2·84, p=0·013) and the H19 ICR (ß=-2·31, p=0·048) compared with term infants at birth, although this difference disappeared at 1 year. Social deprivation was independently associated with decreased %5mC at DMR2 at birth (ß=-1·73, p=0·006) and term-corrected age (ß=-0·86, p=0·016) but not at 1 year (ß=-0·89, p=0·07). INTERPRETATION: Our results show that decreased %5mC accompanies the early growth deficit in preterm infants. The marked reduction in %5mC at IGF2 DMR2 in preterm infants at birth compared with term-age supports existing evidence that imprinting at secondary regions is established after fertilisation, whereas imprinting is established during gametogenesis at primary regions (H19 ICR). Both regions might be susceptible to early life stressors such as preterm birth and social deprivation. FUNDING: Chief Scientist Office of the Scottish Government.

Human anogenital distance: an update on fetal smoke-exposure and integration of the perinatal literature on sex differences.

STUDY QUESTION: Do sex and maternal smoking effects on human fetal anogenital distance (AGD) persist in a larger study and how do these data integrate with the wider literature on perinatal human AGD, especially with respect to sex differences? SUMMARY ANSWER: Second trimester sex differences in AGD are broadly consistent with neonatal and infant measures of AGD and maternal cigarette smoking is associated with a temporary increase in male AGD in the absence of changes in circulating testosterone. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: AGD is a biomarker of fetal androgen exposure, a reduced AGD in males being associated with cryptorchidism, hypospadias and reduced penile length. Normative fetal AGD data remain partial and windows of sensitivity of human fetal AGD to disruption are not known. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: The effects of fetal sex and maternal cigarette smoking on the second trimester (11-21 weeks of gestation) human fetal AGD were studied, along with measurement of testosterone and testicular transcripts associated with apoptosis and proliferation. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING METHODS: AGD, measured from the centre of the anus to the posterior/caudal root of penis/clitoris (AGD(app)) was determined in 56 female and 70 male morphologically normal fetuses. These data were integrated with current literature on perinatal AGD in humans. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: At 11-13 weeks of gestation male fetal AGD(app) was 61% (P< 0.001) longer than in females, increasing to 70% at 17-21 weeks. This sexual dimorphism was independent of growth characteristics (fetal weight, length, gonad weight). We confirmed that at 14-16 weeks of gestation male fetal AGD(app) was increased 28% (P < 0.05) by in utero cigarette smoke exposure. Testosterone levels were not affected by smoking. To develop normative data, our findings have been integrated with available data from in vivo ultrasound scans and neonatal studies. Inter-study variations in male/female AGD differences lead to the conclusion that normalization and standardization approaches should be developed to enable confidence in comparing data from different perinatal AGD studies. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: Sex differences, and a smoking-dependent increase in male fetal AGD at 14-16 weeks, identified in a preliminary study, were confirmed with a larger number of fetuses. However, human fetal AGD should, be re-assessed once much larger numbers of fetuses have been studied and this should be integrated with more detailed analysis of maternal lifestyle. Direct study of human fetal genital tissues is required for further mechanistic insights. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Fetal exposure to cigarette smoke chemicals is known to lead to reduced fertility in men and women. Integration of our data into the perinatal human AGD literature shows that more work needs to be done to enable reliable inter-study comparisons. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTERESTS: The study was supported by grants from the Chief Scientist Office (Scottish Executive, CZG/1/109 & CZG/4/742), NHS Grampian Endowments (08/02), the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement no 212885 and the Medical Research Council, UK (MR/L010011/1). The authors declare they have no competing interests, be it financial, personal or professional.

In utero exposure to cigarette chemicals induces sex-specific disruption of one-carbon metabolism and DNA methylation in the human fetal liver.

BACKGROUND: Maternal smoking is one of the most important modifiable risk factors for low birthweight, which is strongly associated with increased cardiometabolic disease risk in adulthood. Maternal smoking reduces the levels of the methyl donor vitamin B12 and is associated with altered DNA methylation at birth. Altered DNA methylation may be an important mechanism underlying increased disease susceptibility; however, the extent to which this can be induced in the developing fetus is unknown. METHODS: In this retrospective study, we measured concentrations of cobalt, vitamin B12, and mRNA transcripts encoding key enzymes in the 1-carbon cycle in 55 fetal human livers obtained from 11 to 21 weeks of gestation elective terminations and matched for gestation and maternal smoking. DNA methylation was measured at critical regions known to be susceptible to the in utero environment. Homocysteine concentrations were analyzed in plasma from 60 fetuses. RESULTS: In addition to identifying baseline sex differences, we found that maternal smoking was associated with sex-specific alterations of fetal liver vitamin B12, plasma homocysteine and expression of enzymes in the 1-carbon cycle in fetal liver. In the majority of the measured parameters which showed a sex difference, maternal smoking reduced the magnitude of that difference. Maternal smoking also altered DNA methylation at the imprinted gene IGF2 and the glucocorticoid receptor (GR/NR3C1). CONCLUSIONS: Our unique data strengthen studies linking in utero exposures to altered DNA methylation by showing, for the first time, that such changes are present in fetal life and in a key metabolic target tissue, human fetal liver. Furthermore, these data propose a novel mechanism by which such changes are induced, namely through alterations in methyl donor availability and changes in 1-carbon metabolism.

Prenatal glucocorticoid exposure in rats: programming effects on stress reactivity and cognition in adult offspring.

Human epidemiological studies have provided compelling evidence that prenatal exposure to stress is associated with significantly increased risks of developing psychiatric disorders in adulthood. Exposure to excessive maternal glucocorticoids may underlie this fetal programming effect. In the current study, we assessed how prenatal dexamethasone administration during the last week of gestation affects stress reactivity and cognition in adult offspring. Stress reactivity was assessed by evaluating anxiety-like behavior on an elevated plus maze and in an open field. In addition, to characterize the long-term cognitive outcomes of prenatal exposure to glucocorticoids, animals were assessed on two cognitive tasks, a spatial reference memory task with reversal learning and a delayed matching to position (DMTP) task. Our results suggest that prenatal exposure to dexamethasone had no observable effect on anxiety-like behavior, but affected cognition in the adult offspring. Prenatally dexamethasone-exposed animals showed a transient deficit in the spatial reference memory task and a trend to faster acquisition during the reversal-learning phase. Furthermore, prenatally dexamethasone-treated animals also showed faster learning of new platform positions in the DMTP task. These results suggest that fetal overexposure to glucocorticoids programs a phenotype characterized by cognitive flexibility and adaptability to frequent changes in environmental circumstances. This can be viewed as an attempt to increase the fitness of survival in a potentially hazardous postnatal environment, as predicted by intrauterine adversity. Collectively, our data suggest that prenatal exposure to dexamethasone in rats could be used as an animal model for studying some cognitive components of related psychiatric disorders.

Post-weaning diet determines metabolic risk in mice exposed to overnutrition in early life.

BACKGROUND: Maternal overnutrition during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of obesity and cardiometabolic disease in the offspring; a phenomenon attributed to 'developmental programming'. The post-weaning development of obesity may associate with exacerbation of the programmed metabolic phenotype. In mice, we have previously shown that exposure to maternal overnutrition causes increased weight gain in offspring before weaning, but exerts no persistent effects on weight or glucose tolerance in adulthood. In order to determine whether post-weaning exposure to a cafeteria diet might lead to an exacerbation of programmed effects, offspring born and raised by mothers on control (CON) or cafeteria (DIO) diets were transferred onto either CON or DIO diets at weaning. FINDINGS: Post-weaning DIO caused the development of obesity, with hyperglycaemia and hyperinsulinaemia in males; and obesity with hyperinsulinaemia in females and with increased cholesterol levels in both sexes. Exposure to maternal overnutrition during pregnancy and lactation caused only subtle additional effects on offspring phenotype. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that post-weaning exposure to a high-fat high-sugar diet has a more profound effect on offspring weight gain and glucose tolerance than exposure to maternal overnutrition. These data emphasise the importance of optimising early life nutrition in offspring of both obese and lean mothers.

Epigenetic reprogramming: preparing the epigenome for the next generation.

Epigenetic reprogramming of germ cells involves the genome-wide erasure and subsequent re-establishment of DNA methylation, along with reprogramming of histone modification profiles and the eventual incorporation of histone variants. These linked processes appear to be key for the establishment of the correct epigenetic regulation of this cell lineage. Mouse studies indicate that DNA demethylation may be initiated at E (embryonic day) 8 with rapid and substantial erasure occurring between E11.5 and E12.5. This is accompanied by a reduction in H3K9 dimethylation and an increase in H3K27 trimethylation. DNA remethylation subsequently occurs in late gestation in male germ cells and postnatally in female germ cells. This reprogramming occurs throughout the genome, with the exception of specific sequences. The conservation of this process across species remains largely undetermined, and, with recent discoveries of new DNA modifications, there is still much to be explored.

What is the evidence in humans that DNA methylation changes link events in utero and later life disease?

Development in utero is now recognized as crucial to determining later life disease susceptibility. Whilst mechanisms are poorly understood, there has been considerable interest in the potential role of epigenetic processes in intra-uterine programming of disease. Epigenetic modifications include various mechanisms that influence chromatin structure and gene expression. Here, we review emerging data from human studies that altered DNA methylation links intra-uterine events with later life disease. Further research in this field is needed to determine whether altered DNA methylation in target tissues can be used as a biomarker for the early identification of and intervention in individuals most at risk of later life disease.

Characteristics of salivary telomere length shortening in preterm infants.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between gestational age, telomere length (TL) and rate of shortening in newborns. STUDY DESIGN: Genomic DNA was isolated from buccal samples of 39 term infants at birth and one year and 32 preterm infants at birth, term-adjusted age (40 weeks post-conception) and age one-year corrected for gestational duration. Telomere length was measured by quantitative real-time PCR. Demographic and clinical data were collected during clinic or research visits and from hospital records. Socioeconomic status was estimated using the deprivation category (DEPCAT) scores derived from the Carstairs score of the subject's postal code. RESULTS: At birth, preterm infants had longer telomeres than infants born at term. However, there was no difference in telomere length between preterm infants and term infants at one year of age, implying that the rate of telomere shortening was greater in pre-term than term infants. Interestingly, TL at age 40 weeks post-conception in preterm infants was significantly longer than term infant TL at birth, suggesting that time since conception is not the only factor that affects rate of shortening. Several factors, including sex, fetal growth restriction, maternal age, maternal booking body mass index (BMI), mother education level and DEPCAT score, also differed between the preterm and term groups. CONCLUSIONS: Preterm infants have longer telomeres than term infants at birth. In the studied cohort, the rate of telomere shortening was greater in the premature group compared with the term infants. This finding agrees with previous studies using cord blood, suggesting that the longer TL in premature infants detected at birth do not persist and demonstrating that use of saliva DNA is acceptable for studies of telomere dynamics in infants. However, that the TL at age 40 weeks post-conception in preterm is longer than term infants at birth suggests that biological factors other than time since conception also affect rate of shortening.

An unbalanced maternal diet in pregnancy associates with offspring epigenetic changes in genes controlling glucocorticoid action and foetal growth.

OBJECTIVE: In epidemiological studies, adverse early-life conditions associate with subsequent cardiometabolic disease. Hypothesized causes include maternal malnutrition, foetal glucocorticoid overexposure and reduced growth factors. Animal studies suggest a role for epigenetic processes in maintaining early-life effects into adulthood, but human relevance is unknown. We aimed to investigate relationships between an unbalanced maternal diet in pregnancy, neonatal and adult anthropometric variables with methylation at key genes controlling tissue glucocorticoid action and foetal growth. DESIGN: We studied 34 individuals aged 40 from the Motherwell cohort study whose mothers ate an unbalanced diet in pregnancy, previously linked with elevated blood pressure and cortisol in adult offspring. MEASUREMENTS: DNA methylation at 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (HSD2), glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2) was measured by pyrosequencing on buffy coat DNA. RESULTS: Methylation at specific CpGs in the HSD2 promoter and at one of the IGF2 differentially methylated regions (H19 ICR) correlated with neonatal anthropometric variables. CpG methylation within HSD2, GR and H19 ICR was positively associated with increased adiposity and blood pressure in adulthood. Methylation at GR (exon 1F) was increased in offspring of mothers with the most unbalanced diets in pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: Alterations in DNA methylation at genes important in regulating circulating cortisol levels, tissue glucocorticoid action, blood pressure and foetal growth are present in adulthood in association with both early-life parameters and cardiometabolic risk factors. The data indicate a persisting epigenetic link between early-life maternal diet and/or foetal growth and cardiovascular disease risk in humans.

Effect of androgen treatment during foetal and/or neonatal life on ovarian function in prepubertal and adult rats.

We investigated the effects of different windows of testosterone propionate (TP) treatment during foetal and neonatal life in female rats to determine whether and when excess androgen exposure would cause disruption of adult reproductive function. Animals were killed prepubertally at d25 and as adults at d90. Plasma samples were taken for hormone analysis and ovaries serial sectioned for morphometric analyses. In prepubertal animals, only foetal+postnatal and late postnatal TP resulted in increased body weights, and an increase in transitory, but reduced antral follicle numbers without affecting total follicle populations. Treatment with TP during both foetal+postnatal life resulted in the development of streak ovaries with activated follicles containing oocytes that only progressed to a small antral (smA) stage and inactive uteri. TP exposure during foetal or late postnatal life had no effect upon adult reproductive function or the total follicle population, although there was a reduction in the primordial follicle pool. In contrast, TP treatment during full postnatal life (d1-25) resulted in anovulation in adults (d90). These animals were heavier, had a greater ovarian stromal compartment, no differences in follicle thecal cell area, but reduced numbers of anti-Mullerian hormone-positive smA follicles when compared with controls. Significantly reduced uterine weights lead reduced follicle oestradiol production. These results support the concept that androgen programming of adult female reproductive function occurs only during specific time windows in foetal and neonatal life with implications for the development of polycystic ovary syndrome in women.

Metformin in obese pregnancy has no adverse effects on cardiovascular risk in early childhood.

Metformin is widely used in pregnancy, despite lack of long-term safety for children. We hypothesised that metformin exposure in utero is associated with increased cardiovascular risk. We tested this hypothesis in a follow-up study of children born to obese mothers who had participated in a randomised controlled trial of metformin versus placebo in pregnancy (EMPOWaR). We measured body composition, peripheral blood pressure (BP), arterial pulse wave velocity and central haemodynamics (central BP and augmentation index) using an oscillometric device in 40 children of mean (SD) age 5.78 (0.93) years, exposed to metformin (n = 19) or placebo (n = 21) in utero. There were no differences in any of the anthropometric or vascular measures between metformin and placebo-exposed groups in univariate analyses, or after adjustment for potential confounders including the child's behaviour, diet and activity levels. Post-hoc sample size calculation indicated we would have detected large clinically significant differences between the groups but would need an unfeasible large number to detect possible subtle differences in key cardiovascular risk parameters in children at this age of follow-up. Our findings suggest no evidence of increased cardiovascular risk in children born to obese mothers who took metformin in pregnancy and increase available knowledge of the long-term safety of metformin on childhood outcomes.

Transmission of programming effects across generations.

Numerous epidemiological studies have shown that exposure to an adverse environment in early life is associated with a substantially increased risk of later disease; a phenomenon termed 'early life programming'. There is increasing evidence that these effects may not be limited to the first, directly exposed generation but may also be transmissible to subsequent generations through non-genomic mechanisms. There are a number of mechanisms which may underpin the intergenerational transmission of the programmed phenotype, including persistence of the abnormal environment across generations, programmed effects on maternal physiology and the transmission of epigenetic information through the germline. In this review we discuss the evidence for these mechanisms in human and animal studies and the potential importance of this field for child health.

Early life stress and LPS interact to modify the mouse cortical transcriptome in the neonatal period.

INTRODUCTION: Preterm birth (PTB) is closely associated with atypical cerebral cortical development and cognitive impairment. Early exposure to extrauterine life often results in atypical environmental and biological experiences that co-occur, including early life stress (ELS) and systemic inflammation. Understanding how these experiences interact to shape cortical development is an essential prerequisite to developing therapeutic interventions that will work in the complex postnatal environment of the preterm infant. Here, we studied the effects of a murine model of infection and ELS on the neonatal cortex transcriptome. METHODS: We used a mouse model of infection (1 â€‹mg/kg LPS at postnatal day (P)3) +/- ELS (modified maternal separation; MMS on days P4-P6) at timepoints with neurodevelopmental relevance to PTB. We used 4 groups: control, LPS, MMS and LPS â€‹+ â€‹MMS. Cortices were dissected at P6 for 3'RNA sequencing. RESULTS: LPS exposure resulted in reduced weight gain and increased expression of inflammation-associated genes in the brain. More genes were differentially expressed following LPS (15) and MMS (29) than with LPS â€‹+ â€‹MMS (8). There was significant overlap between the LPS and MMS datasets, particularly amongst upregulated genes, and when comparing LPS and MMS datasets with LPS â€‹+ â€‹MMS. Gene Ontology terms related to the extracellular matrix and cytokine response were enriched following MMS, but not following LPS or LPS â€‹+ â€‹MMS. 26 Reactome pathways were enriched in the LPS group, none of which were enriched in the LPS â€‹+ â€‹MMS group. Finally, a rank-rank hypergeometric overlap test showed similarities, particularly in upregulated genes, in the LPS and MMS conditions, indicating shared mechanisms. CONCLUSION: LPS and MMS interact to modify the cortical transcriptome in the neonatal period. This has important implications for understanding the neural basis of atypical cortical development associated with early exposure to extrauterine life.

Modeling human hepatic steatosis in pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatocytes.

This protocol describes the production of hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) from human pluripotent stem cells and how to induce hepatic steatosis, a condition characterized by intracellular lipid accumulation. Following differentiation to an HLC phenotype, intracellular lipid accumulation is induced with a steatosis induction cocktail, allowing the user to examine the cellular processes that underpin hepatic steatosis. Furthermore, the renewable nature of our system, on a defined genetic background, permits in-depth mechanistic analysis, which may facilitate therapeutic target identification in the future. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Sinton et al. (2021).

Metabolic adaptations to hypoxia in the neonatal mouse forebrain can occur independently of the transporters SLC7A5 and SLC3A2.

Neonatal encephalopathy due to hypoxia-ischemia is associated with adverse neurodevelopmental effects. The involvement of branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) in this is largely unexplored. Transport of BCAAs at the plasma membrane is facilitated by SLC7A5/SLC3A2, which increase with hypoxia. We hypothesized that hypoxia would alter BCAA transport and metabolism in the neonatal brain. We investigated this using an organotypic forebrain slice culture model with, the SLC7A5/SLC3A2 inhibitor, 2-Amino-2-norbornanecarboxylic acid (BCH) under normoxic or hypoxic conditions. We subsequently analysed the metabolome and candidate gene expression. Hypoxia was associated with increased expression of SLC7A5 and SLC3A2 and an increased tissue abundance of BCAAs. Incubation of slices with 13C-leucine confirmed that this was due to increased cellular uptake. BCH had little effect on metabolite abundance under normoxic or hypoxic conditions. This suggests hypoxia drives increased cellular uptake of BCAAs in the neonatal mouse forebrain, and membrane mediated transport through SLC7A5 and SLC3A2 is not essential for this process. This indicates mechanisms exist to generate the compounds required to maintain essential metabolism in the absence of external nutrient supply. Moreover, excess BCAAs have been associated with developmental delay, providing an unexplored mechanism of hypoxia mediated pathogenesis in the developing forebrain.