Virtual Reality-Based Assessment for Rehabilitation of the Upper Limb in Patients with Parkinson's Disease: A Pilot Cross-Sectional Study.

Background and Objectives: This study aimed to examine the responsiveness and concurrent validity of a serious game and its correlation between the use of serious games and upper limbs (UL) performance in Parkinson's Disease (PD) patients. Materials and Methods: Twenty-four consecutive upper limbs (14 males, 8 females, age: 55-83 years) of PD patients were assessed. The clinical assessment included: the Box and Block test (BBT), Nine-Hole Peg test (9HPT), and sub-scores of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating-Scale Motor section (UPDRS-M) to assess UL disability. Performance scores obtained in two different tests (Ex. A and Ex. B, respectively, the Trolley test and Mushrooms test) based on leap motion (LM) sensors were used to study the correlations with clinical scores. Results: The subjective fatigue experienced during LM tests was measured by the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE, 0-10); the BBT and 9HPT showed the highest correlation coefficients with UPDRS-M scores (ICCs: -0.652 and 0.712, p < 0.05). Exercise A (Trolley test) correlated with UPDRS-M (ICC: 0.31, p < 0.05), but not with the 9HPT and BBT tests (ICCs: -0.447 and 0.390, p < 0.05), while Exercise B (Mushroom test) correlated with UPDRS-M (ICC: -0.40, p < 0.05), as did these last two tests (ICCs: -0.225 and 0.272, p < 0.05). The mean RPE during LM tests was 3.4 ± 3.2. The evaluation of upper limb performance is feasible and does not induce relevant fatigue. Conclusions: The analysis of the ICC supports the use of Test B to evaluate UL disability and performance in PD patients, while Test A is mostly correlated with disability. Specifically designed serious games on LM can serve as a method of impairment in the PD population.

Conditioned pain modulation and psychological factors in young adults with recurrent or chronic neck pain.

BACKGROUND: Controversy exists with the presence of alterations in descending pain inhibition mechanisms in patients with non-specific neck pain (NSNP). The aim of the present study was to evaluate the status of conditioned pain modulation CPM, remote pressure pain thresholds (PPT), and psychological factors in a specific subgroup of patients with NSNP such as young adult students. In addition, possible associations between CPM, psychological factors, and pain characteristics were analyzed. METHODS: Thirty students with recurrent or chronic NSNP and 30 pain-free students were included in this cross-sectional study. The following measures were assessed: CPM, remote PPT, psychological factors (depression, anxiety, pain catastrophizing, and kinesiophobia), pain characteristics (duration, intensity, severity of chronic pain, interference with daily life), and central sensitization inventory (CSI). RESULTS: No significant differences were found in the efficacy of CPM between students with chronic or recurrent NSNP and pain-free students (ß coefficient = -0.67; 95% CI = -1.54, 0.20). However, students with pain showed a significantly higher remote PPT (mean difference = -1.94; 95% CI = -2.71, -1.18). and a greater presence of anxious (mean difference = 6; 95% CI = 2, 9) and depressive symptoms (mean difference = 8.57; 95% CI = 3.97, 13.16). In addition, significant moderate or strong correlations were found between CPM and pain intensity (partial r = 0.41), pain catastrophizing and mean pain intensity (r = 0.37), grade (r = 0.50), and interference of pain (r = 0.57), kinesiophobia and disability (r = 0.38), and depression and CSI (r = 0.39). CONCLUSIONS: Young adult students with chronic or recurrent NSNP present remote hyperalgesia and symptoms of depression and anxiety but not dysfunctional CPM.

Effects of Percutaneous and Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation on Endogenous Pain Mechanisms in Patients with Musculoskeletal Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVES: The main aim was to determine the effects of percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (PENS) and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) on endogenous pain mechanisms in patients with musculoskeletal pain. DESIGN: A systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS: The search was conducted on March 1, 2022, in the EMBASE, CINAHL, PubMed, PEDro, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Medline, and SCOPUS databases. Randomized controlled trials comparing the use of transcutaneous or percutaneous electrostimulation with a placebo, control group, or standard treatment in patients with musculoskeletal pain were included. Outcome measurements were quantitative sensory testing somatosensory variables like pressure pain threshold (PPT), conditioned pain modulation, and temporal summation of pain. The pooled data were evaluated in Review Manager 5.4. RESULTS: Twenty-four randomized controlled trials (n = 24) were included in the qualitative analysis and 23 in the meta-analysis. The immediate effects of PENS and TENS on local PPTs were significant, with a moderate effect size (standardized mean difference [SMD] 0.53; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.34 to 0.72; P < 0.00001). When only studies with a lower risk of bias were analyzed, the heterogeneity decreased from I2 = 58% (P < 0.00001) to I2 = 15% (P = 0.01), and a decrease in the overall effect was observed (SMD 0.33; 95% CI: 0.7 to 0.58). The short-term effects on local PPTs were not significant when compared with the control group (P = 0.13). The mid-term effects on local PPTs were significant, showing a large effect size (SMD 0.55; 95% CI: 0.9 to 1.00; P = 0.02). The immediate effects on conditioned pain modulation were significant, with a large effect size (SMD 0.94; 95% CI: 0.48 to 1.41; P < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: PENS and TENS have a mild-moderate immediate effect on local mechanical hyperalgesia in patients with musculoskeletal pain. It appears that these effects are not sustained over time. Analyses suggest an effect on central pain mechanisms producing a moderate increase in remote PPT, an increase in conditioned pain modulation, but further studies are needed to draw clearer conclusions.

Experimental Pain Measurements Do Not Relate to Pain Intensity and Pain Cognitions in People Scheduled for Surgery for Lumbar Radiculopathy.

OBJECTIVE: The present cross-sectional study aims to unravel associations of pain intensity and cognitions with quantitative sensory testing in people scheduled for surgery for lumbar radiculopathy. Additionally, insight will be provided into the presence of dysfunctional nociceptive processing and maladaptive pain cognitions in this population. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Data from three hospitals in Belgium. SUBJECTS: The final sample comprised 120 participants with lumbar radiculopathy scheduled for surgery, included between March 2016 and April 2019. METHODS: Self-reported pain intensity was assessed on a visual analog scale, and pain cognitions were assessed with self-reported questionnaires (Pain Catastrophizing Scale, Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia, and Pain Vigilance and Awareness Questionnaire). Quantitative sensory testing (detection thresholds, pain thresholds, temporal summation, and conditioned pain modulation) was evaluated, as well. RESULTS: Evidence was found for the presence of an impaired inhibitory response to nociceptive stimuli and maladaptive pain cognitions in this population. Kinesiophobia was found to be present to a maladaptive degree in the majority of the patients (n = 106 [88%]). Significant, but weak, associations between electrical pain thresholds at the sural nerves and leg pain intensity (sural nerve symptomatic side: r = -0.23; P = 0.01; non-symptomatic side: r = -0.22; P = 0.02) and kinesiophobia levels (sural nerve non-symptomatic side: r = -0.26; P = 0.006) were identified. CONCLUSIONS: Electrical detection thresholds and correlates for endogenous nociceptive facilitation and inhibition were not found to be related to any of the pain cognitions or to pain intensity in people scheduled to undergo surgery for lumbar radiculopathy.

Kinematic analysis of sensorimotor control during the craniocervical flexion movement in patients with neck pain and asymptomatic individuals: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with craniocervical pain have shown reduced performance in the craniocervical flexion test (CCFT). However, there is limited evidence of other possible kinematic alterations not assessed in the context of the CCFT. Previous studies on other functional or planar movements have reported alterations in sensorimotor control (e.g., range of motion [ROM], velocity, or smoothness) in subjects with neck pain. The objective of this study was to explore the association between sensorimotor control variables associated with craniocervical flexion movement and different characteristics related to pain, age, disability, and fear of movement in individuals with non-traumatic chronic neck pain and asymptomatic controls. METHODS: This was an observational, cross-sectional study in patients with non-traumatic neck pain and asymptomatic participants. Regression models were used to assess whether descriptive characteristics of the sample, including: (a) age, (b) intensity of pain, (c) neck disability, (d) chronicity of pain, and (e) fear of movement could explain sensorimotor control variables such as ROM, velocity, jerk, head repositioning accuracy, and conjunct motion. All these variables were recorded by means of light inertial measurement unit sensors during the performance of three maximal repetitions of full range craniocervical flexion in the supine position. RESULTS: A total of 211 individuals were screened and 192 participants finished the protocol and were included in the analyses. Participants had an average age of 34.55 ± 13.93 years and included 124 patients with non-traumatic neck pain and 68 asymptomatic subjects. Kinesiophobia partially explained lower craniocervical flexion ROM (p = .01) and lower peak velocity in flexion (P < .001). Age partially explained increased craniocervical extension ROM (P < .001) and lower peak velocity in flexion (P = .03). Chronicity partially explained increased lateral flexion conjunct motion (P = .008). All models showed low values of explained variance (< 32%) and low absolute values of regression coefficients. CONCLUSIONS: This study did not find a clear relationship between population characteristics and sensorimotor control variables associated with the craniocervical flexion movement. Kinesiophobia might have some association with reduced ROM in craniocervical flexion, but further research in this field is needed in large samples of patients with higher levels of kinesiophobia pain or disability.

Prescription of therapeutic exercise in migraine, an evidence-based clinical practice guideline.

The main objective of this clinical practice guideline is to provide a series of recommendations for healthcare and exercise professionals, such as neurologists, physical therapists, and exercise physiologists, regarding exercise prescription for patients with migraine.This guideline was developed following the methodology and procedures recommended in the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE). The quality of evidence and strength of recommendations were evaluated with the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). A systematic literature review was performed and an established appraisal process was employed to rate the quality of relevant scientific research (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation methodology).The evaluation of the current evidence, the elaboration of the grades of recommendation, and their validation show a B grade of recommendation for aerobic exercise, moderate-continuous aerobic exercise, yoga, and exercise and lifestyle recommendations for the improvement of symptoms, disability, and quality of life in patients with migraine. Relaxation techniques, high-intensity interval training, low-intensity continuous aerobic exercise, exercise and relaxation techniques, Tai Chi, and resistance exercise obtained a C grade of recommendation for the improvement of migraine symptoms and disability.

Correlation between the Altered Gut Microbiome and Lifestyle Interventions in Chronic Widespread Pain Patients: A Systematic Review.

Background: Lifestyle interventions have a direct impact on the gut microbiome, changing its composition and functioning. This opens an innovative way for new therapeutic opportunities for chronic widespread patients. Purpose: The goal of the present study was to evaluate a correlation between lifestyle interventions and the gut microbiome in patients with chronic widespread pain (CWP). Methods: The systematic review was conducted until January 2023. Pain and microbiome were the two keywords selected for this revision. The search was conducted in PubMed, Chochrane, PEDro and ScienceDirect, where 3917 papers were obtained. Clinical trials with lifestyle intervention in CWP patients were selected. Furthermore, these papers had to be related with the gut microbiome, excluding articles related to other types of microbiomes. Results: Only six articles were selected under the eligibility criteria. Lifestyle interventions were exercise, electroacupuncture and ingesting a probiotic. Conclusions: Lifestyle intervention could be a suitable choice to improve the gut microbiome. This fact could be extrapolated into a better quality of life and lesser levels of pain.

Effects of neural mobilizations through movement representation techniques for the improvement of neural mechanosensitivity of the median nerve region: a randomized controlled trial.

PURPOSE: The main objective was to compare the effects of neural mobilization (NM), NM performed through mirror therapy (MT), NM performed through action observation (AO) training and finally classic rehabilitation program (mobility and strength) exercises on neural mechanosensitivity, widespread of proximal and distal pain and pressure pain thresholds (PPT). The second objective was to assess the effects of these interventions on handgrip strength, conditioned pain modulation, motor imagery ability and temporal summation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Single-blinded randomized controlled trial. Fifty-four healthy subjects were randomly assigned to each group. Neural mechanosensitivity, widespread pain and PPT were the main variables. The secondary variables included handgrip strength, conditioned pain modulation, motor imagery ability and temporal summation. RESULTS: All groups showed significant differences in time*factor for neural mechanosensitivity (p = 0.001), PPT in the dermatome of the median nerve (p = 0.007), PPT at carpal tunnel (p < 0.05) and proximal widespread (p = 0.01). No differences were found for distal widespread, conditioned pain modulation, handgrip strength motor imagery ability or temporal summation (p > 0.05). There is an absence of statistically significant differences between groups. CONCLUSIONS: NM through movement representation techniques can reduce mechanosensitivity and mechanical hyperalgesia in the median nerve dermatome and forearm, although no differences were found between groups.

Postoperative Psychosocial Factors in Health Functioning and Health-Related Quality of Life After Knee Arthroplasty: A 6-Month Follow up Prospective Observational Study.

OBJECTIVE: Knee arthroplasty (KA) is an effective and cost-effective treatment for end-stage knee osteoarthritis. Despite high surgical success rates, as many as 25% of patients report compromised postoperative functioning, persistent pain, and reduced quality of life. The purpose of this study was to assess the predictive value of psychological factors in health functioning and quality of life, during a 6-month period after KA. DESIGN: A prospective observational study. SETTING: Surgery at two hospitals and follow-up was carried out through the domiciliary rehabilitation service. SUBJECTS: In total, 89 patients (age 70.27 ± 7.99 years) met the inclusion criteria. METHOD: A test battery composed of Health functioning associated with osteoarthritis (WOMAC), Health-related quality of life (EQ-5D-5L), Anxiety and Depression (HADS), Pain attitudes (SOPA-B), Pain catastrophizing (PCS), and Fear of Movement (TSK-11) was assessed at 1 week, and 1, 3, and 6 months after surgery. A mixed effects linear model was used to estimate the effect of time and covariates. An exploratory factor analysis was used to identify the number of dimensions underlying the group of psychological measurements. RESULTS: In WOMAC model, anxiety level (F = 120.8), PCS (F = 103.9), depression level (F = 93.6) and pain score (F = 72.8) were the most influential variables. Regarding EQ-5D-5L model, anxiety level (F = 98.5), PCS (F = 79.8), depression level (F = 78.3) and pain score (F = 45) were the most influential variables. Pain score and the psychosocial variables of PCS, TSK, HADS-A, HADS-D, SOPA-B Emotion, SOPA-B Harm and SOPA-B Disability loaded in one single dimension. CONCLUSIONS: Postoperative acute pain and psychosocial factors of pain catastrophizing, anxiety, depression, and pain attitudes might influence health functioning and quality of life during KA rehabilitation. Such factors could be gathered into one single dimension defined as pain-related psychologic distress.

Efficacy of Anodal Suboccipital Direct Current Stimulation for Endogenous Pain Modulation and Tonic Thermal Pain Control in Healthy Participants: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess whether anodal DCS applied to the suboccipital (SO) target area could potentiate antinociception assessed primarily with conditioned pain modulation of tonic thermal test stimuli. DESIGN: Randomized double-blinded control trial. SETTING: Rehabilitation hospital. SUBJECTS: Healthy participants. METHODS: Forty healthy participants were randomized to receive either SO-DCS or M1-DCS. The 20-minute 1.5 mA anodal or sham DCS intervention were applied to each participant in randomized order during two test sessions. The primary outcome measure included heterotopic cold-pressor conditioned pain modulation (CPM) of tonic heat pain. Secondary measures included pressure pain threshold and tonic thermal pain intensity. RESULTS: Heterotopic CPM of tonic heat pain intensity was unaffected by either SO-DCS or active M1, including the secondary measures of pressure pain threshold and tonic thermal pain intensity. Although low-power non-significant interactions were identified for DCS intervention (active versus sham) and time (before and after), a significant within-group inhibition of tonic cold pain was identified following SO-DCS (P = .011, mean [SD]: -0.76 ± 0.88 points) and M1-DCS (P < .002: -0.84 ± 0.82 points), without a significant change following sham DCS. CONCLUSIONS: Although heterotopic CPM was not facilitated with either SO-DCS or M1-DCS, a general significant inhibition of tonic cold pain intensity was demonstrated following both interventions. The general effects of active DCS compared to sham on tonic cold pain-irrespective of the M1 or SO target-need to be confirmed using standard quantitative sensory testing.

Comparative study of observed actions, motor imagery and control therapeutic exercise on the conditioned pain modulation in the cervical spine: a randomized controlled trial.

Aim: The aim of this study was to compare the effects of cervical exercise, motor imagery (MI) and action observation (AO) of cervical exercise actions on conditioned pain modulation and pressure pain thresholds. The second objective was to assess the effects of these interventions on cervical motor activity (ranges of motion and muscle endurance), attention, and the ability to generate motor images.Study design: Single-blinded randomized controlled trial.Materials and methods: Fifty-four healthy subjects were randomly assigned to each group. Response conditioned pain modulation, pressure pain threshold, were the main variables. The secondary outcome measures included, cervical range of motion, Neck flexor endurance test, mental movement representation associated and psychosocial variables.Results: All groups showed significant differences in time factor for all evaluated variables (p < .01) except pressure pain threshold over the tibial region. The post hoc analysis revealed significant within-group differences in the AE and AO groups in conditioned pain modulation (p < .05), with medium effect size in time [AE (d -0.61); AO (d -0.74)].Conclusion: The results showed that within-group changes in conditioned pain modulation, cervical muscle endurance, and attention where founded only in the AE and AO groups. Variations in pain thresholds at pressure in the trapezium area were also obtained in the three groups. Changes in the ranges of flexion-extension and rotation movement were presented exclusively in the exercise group, and in the capacity to generate motor images only in the AO group. However, there was no difference in the pressure pain threshold over the tibial region.

Efficacy of Physical Therapy on Nociceptive Pain Processing Alterations in Patients with Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Chronic musculoskeletal pain is a major health, social, and economic problem. Most of the subjects who suffer from chronic musculoskeletal pain present processes of central sensitization. Temporal summation and conditioned pain modulation are the two most commonly used clinical measures of this. The objective of this review is to evaluate the effects of physical therapy on temporal summation (TS) and conditioned pain modulation (CPM) in patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain. METHODS: This is a systematic review and meta-analysis. We searched the MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, EBSCO, PubMed, PEDro, Cochrane Collaboration Trials Register, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and SCOPUS databases. Different mesh terms and key words were combined for the search strategy, with the aim of encompassing all studies that have used any type of physical therapy treatment in patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain and have measured both TS and CPM. RESULTS: Eighteen studies remained for qualitative analysis and 16 for quantitative analysis. Statistically significant differences with a 95% confidence interval (CI) were obtained for TS (-0.21, 95% CI = -0.39 to -0.03, Z = 2.50, P = 0.02, N = 721) and CPM (0.34, 95% CI = 0.12 to 0.56, Z = 2.99, P = 0.003, N = 680) in favor of physical therapy as compared with control. Manual therapy produces a slight improvement in TS, and physical therapy modalities in general improve CPM. No significant differences between the subgroups of the meta-analysis were found. The methodological quality of the studies was high. CONCLUSIONS: Physical therapy produces a slight improvement in central sensitization (CS)-related variables, with TS decreased and CPM increased when compared with a control group in patients with CMP. Only significant differences in TS were identified in the manual therapy subgroup.

Is a Combination of Exercise and Dry Needling Effective for Knee OA?

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness of adding dry needling (DN) to an exercise program on pain intensity and disability in patients with knee osteoarthritis. DESIGN: Double-blind randomized clinical trial with one-year follow-up. SETTING: Older adults in a multicenter study. SUBJECTS: Sixty-two patients with knee osteoarthritis were randomly allocated into one of two groups: exercise plus DN (exercise + DN; N = 31) or exercise plus sham DN (exercise + sham DN; N = 31). METHODS: Participants received six sessions of either DN or sham DN over the leg muscles related to knee pain from osteoarthritis plus a supervised exercise program. We evaluated between-group differences in terms of the numerical pain rating scale (NPRS) and Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) score. We used the EuroQol Group 5-Dimension Self-Report Questionnaire, Barthel Index, Timed Up & Go Test, and Global Rating of Change Scale to examine between-group differences for health-related quality of life, functional status evaluation, balance assessment, and clinical progress, respectively. RESULTS: The groups were not different in terms of pain intensity (0.32 points, 95% confidence interval [CI] = -1.12 to 1.18, P = 0.92) or WOMAC score (0.29 points, 95% CI = -6.16 to 6.74, P = 0.92) at one year. Both groups presented within-group differences at all follow-up periods (F = 28.349, P < 0.0001, ηp2 = 0.32) on secondary outcomes. Nevertheless, 90.3% of the DN group had reduced medication consumption vs only 26.3% in the sham DN group. CONCLUSIONS: The inclusion of DN to an exercise program does not reduce pain or disability in patients with knee osteoarthritis.

How Much Is Needed? Comparison of the Effectiveness of Different Pain Education Dosages in Patients with Fibromyalgia.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of different dosages of pain neuroscience education (PNE) programs on central nociceptive processing in patients with fibromyalgia. Second, to compare the effects of different dosages of PNE programs on numerical pain rating scale (NPRS), disability, and psychological variables. DESIGN: Single-blind randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Three fibromyalgia centers in Spain (Valencia, Alcorcón, Alcalá de Henares). SUBJECTS: Seventy-seven patients with fibromyalgia. METHODS: Participants were randomized to four groups of PNE: 1) high-dose PNE (N = 20), 2) low-concentrated dose PNE (N = 20), 3) diluted low-dose PNE (N = 20), and (4) control treatment (N = 17), conducted in two 30-50-minute sessions in groups of four to six participants. Conditioned pain modulation (CPM), temporal summation (TS), and pressure pain thresholds (PPTs) were assessed at baseline and at three-month follow-up. Secondary outcome measures were the Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire, Pain Catastrophizing Scale, and Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale. RESULTS: There were significant between-group differences for NPRS in favor of the groups receiving high-dose PNE, with a large effect size at three-month follow-up (P < 0.01, η2p = 0.170), but there were no significant differences between groups for the remaining variables (P > 0.05). All groups improved for central nociceptive processing, psychological variables, disability, and pain intensity (NPRS). CONCLUSIONS: In patients with fibromyalgia, higher dosages of PNE produced a larger improvement in pain severity at three-month follow-up than other dosages of PNE and biomedical education. However, PNE was not superior to biomedical education in the central nociceptive processing, disability, or psychological variables in patients with fibromyalgia.

A novel use of inertial sensors to measure the craniocervical flexion range of motion associated to the craniocervical flexion test: an observational study.

BACKGROUND: The craniocervical flexion test (CCFT) is recommended when examining patients with neck pain related conditions and as a deep cervical retraining exercise option. During the execution of the CCFT the examiner should visually assess that the amount of craniocervical flexion range of motion (ROM) progressively increases. However, this task is very subjective. The use of inertial wearable sensors may be a user-friendly option to measure and objectively monitor the ROM. The objectives of our study were (1) to measure craniocervical flexion range of motion (ROM) associated with each stage of the CCFT using a wearable inertial sensor and to determine the reliability of the measurements and (2) to determine craniocervical flexion ROM targets associated with each stage of the CCFT to standardize their use for assessment and training of the deep cervical flexor (DCF) muscles. METHODS: Adults from a university community able to successfully perform the CCFT participated in this study. Two independent examiners evaluated the CCFT in two separate sessions. During the CCFT, a small wireless inertial sensor was adhered to the centre of the forehead to provide real-time monitoring and to record craniocervical flexion ROM. The intra- and inter-rater reliability of the assessment of craniocervical ROM was calculated. This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of CEU San Pablo University (236/17/08). RESULTS: Fifty-six participants (18 males, 23 females; mean [SD] age, 21.8 [3.45] years) were included in the study and successfully completed the study protocol. All interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) values indicated good or excellent reliability of the assessment of craniocervical ROM using a wearable inertial sensor. There was high variability between subjects on the amount of craniocervical ROM necessary to achieve each stage of the CCFT. CONCLUSIONS: The use of inertial sensors is a reliable method to measure the craniocervical flexion ROM associated with the CCFT. The great variability in the ROM limits the possibility to standardize a set of targets of craniocervical flexion ROM equivalent to each of the pressure targets of the pressure biofeedback unit.

Hip-Joint Posture and Movement Alterations Are Associated With High Interference of Pain in the Life of Patients With Greater Trochanteric Pain Syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) is a common condition that can cause lateral hip pain. The single-leg-squat test (SLST) may be used by physicians in primary care environments to evaluate patients' dynamic stability. The aim of this study was to evaluate the dynamic stability and strength of lateral abduction hip movements in primary care patients with GTPS in relation to their perceived pain interference in life. METHODS: A descriptive observational study was carried out in a primary health care center. Fifty-four participants with GTPS were included in this study and divided into lower- and higher-interference groups (n = 30 and 19, respectively) according to the Graded Chronic Pain Scale. Participants were evaluated for their lateral abduction hip strength and the SLST. RESULTS: The SLST showed a statistically significant difference between groups with respect to hip-joint posture and movement level (P = .043) but not for other SLST domains or lateral abduction hip strength (P > .05). CONCLUSION: Patients with GTPS with more pain interference in their lives had poorer dynamic stability with respect to hip-joint posture and movements based on the SLST but did not present impaired lateral hip abduction strength in comparison with those who perceived lower pain interference in life.

Visual motor imagery predominance in professional Spanish dancers.

Purpose: The main objectives of the study were to analyse the predominant motor imagery modality used by professional Spanish dancers and to compare Spanish dancers' ability to perform mental motor imagery with that of non-dancers, and to analyse differences between male and female dancers. As a secondary aim, to compare the motor imagery ability between two styles of Spanish dance: classical Spanish dancers and Flamenco dancers. Methods: A total of 74 participants were classified into two groups: professional Spanish dancers (n = 37) and sedentary participants (n = 37). The professional Spanish dancer group was composed of two dance disciplines: flamenco dancers (n = 17), and classical dancers (n = 20). Results: Professional Spanish dancers used predominantly visual imagery modalities over kinesthetics to generate motor imagery, with a moderate effect size (p < .01, d = 0.68). Regarding the ability to generate motor imagery, significant intergroup differences between professional Spanish dancers and sedentary participants were observed in all variables, with a large effect size (p < .05, d > 0.80). Differences were obtained between men and women among non-dancers group (t = -3.34; p = .03; d = 0.5). No differences between Flamenco and classical dancers were observed. Conclusion: Visual motor imagery modality was easier than the kinaesthetic modality in the generation of motor imagery for professional Spanish dancers regardless of the dance style. Spanish dancers had a greater ability to perform motor imagery compared with non-dancer individuals, needing less time to perform these mental tasks. Men non-dancers had a greater ability to generate motor imagery than women. Reinforcing the training of kinaesthetic motor imagery might be useful for professional Spanish dancers.

Pain Expansion and Severity Reflect Central Sensitization in Primary Care Patients with Greater Trochanteric Pain Syndrome.

OBJECTIVES: The aims of this study were twofold: 1) to evaluate the differences in pain sensitivity of patients with greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) and 2) to examine the association between pain expansion, pain severity, and pain-related central sensitization somatosensory variables in patients with GTPS. STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional study. SETTING: Primary health care centers. SUBJECTS: The sample consisted of 49 participants with a mean age of 48.28 ± 8.13 years and included eight males (16.3%) and 41 females (83.7%). METHODS: Conditioned pain modulation (CPM), pain location, temporal summation, pressure pain detection threshold (PPDT), and pain intensity were recorded. Pain severity was determined with the Graded Chronic Pain Scale (GCPS). RESULTS: Several participants (34.7%) showed a negative conditioned pain modulation and a statistically significant negative moderate correlation (P < 0.05; r = -0.316) between conditioned pain modulation and right view percentage of pain location. Temporal summation at the major trochanter showed a statistically significant low negative correlation (P < 0.05; r = -0.298). The GCPS exhibited a statistically significant moderately positive correlation (P < 0.01; r = 0.467) with the PPDT at the trochanter and a significant correlation with the postero-superior iliac spine (P < 0.01; r = 0.515) and epicondyle (P < 0.01; r = 0.566). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with GTPS presented altered CPM, a relationship with more pain areas associated with negative CPM, and a positive association between pain severity and mechanical hyperalgesia at remote sites. Thus, physicians could apply these outcome measurements to assess primary care patients with GTPS and determine the central sensitization presence to prescribe adequate multimodal treatment approaches.

Neural Tension Technique Improves Immediate Conditioned Pain Modulation in Patients with Chronic Neck Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the immediate effect of neural tension technique (NTT) on conditioned pain modulation in patients with chronic neck pain. A secondary objective was to determine the immediate effect of neural tensioner technique on pain intensity and cervical range of movement. DESIGN: Randomized clinical trial. SETTING: University medical center. SUBJECTS: Fifty-four patients with neck pain (13 males and 41 females; mean± SD age = 20.91 ± 2.64 years) were randomly allocated to two groups: NTT or sham technique. METHODS: Participants received a visual analog scale (VAS) and neck disability index (NDI) after inclusion. Conditioned pain modulation (CPM) and active cervical range of motion were measured before and after the intervention. Each subject received one treatment session. RESULTS: The results of the analysis of variance revealed a significant effect for the group × time interaction only for CPM (F = 11.09, P = 0.002, ηp2 = 0.176). No significant interactions were found for the other measures (VAS [F = 1.719, P = 0.195, ηp2 = 0.031], pressure pain threshold C2 [F = 0.731, P = 0.398, ηp2 = 0.018], flexion [F = 0.176, P = 0.677, ηp2 = 0.003], extension [F = 0.035, P = 0.852, ηp2 = 0.001], lateral flexions [F = 0.422, P = 0.519, ηp2 = 0.008], and rotations [F = 1.307 P = 0.258, ηp2 = 0.024]). Regarding CPM, intergroup interaction differences were found postintervention (P = 0.002) with a high effect size (d = 0.98). CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that neural tension technique enhances immediate conditioned pain modulation in patients with chronic neck pain, but not pain intensity or cervical range of movement.

Relationship of Dynamic Balance Impairment with Pain-Related and Psychosocial Measures in Primary Care Patients with Chronic Greater Trochanteric Pain Syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Subjects with greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) show an altered physical function while performing static and dynamic tasks. Pain and psychosocial factors are also variables that influence the outcomes of these patients. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between dynamic balance, pain-related measures, and psychosocial measures in subjects with chronic GTPS. DESIGN: Descriptive cross-sectional study. SETTING: Primary health care center. SUBJECTS: Fifty-one subjects with greater trochanteric pain syndrome were recruited. METHODS: Dynamic balance was evaluated using the Y-Balance Test (YBT), and a self-reported test battery was used to assess the following aspects: pain catastrophizing (Pain Catastrophizing Scale [PCS]), kinesiophobia (Tampa Scale of Kinesiophobia [TSK-11]), pain intensity (visual analog scale [VAS]), disability (Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index [WOMAC]), and self-efficacy (Chronic Pain Self-Efficacy Scale [CPSS]). RESULTS: Correlation analysis showed that YBT was negatively associated with the VAS average, the helplessness subscale of the PCS, and the pain and function subscales and total score of the WOMAC. YBT was positively associated with the pain subscale of the CPSS. The scores of the YBT forward movement were predicted by the VAS average (38.1% of variance) in addition to the WOMAC total score (34.2% of variance) and TSK-11 total score (43.8% of variance). CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study suggest that kinesiophobia, pain, and physical function are related to dynamic balance in subjects with GTPS. Thus, when diagnosing and planning the treatment of patients with GTPS, psychosocial and physical function factors should be taken into account, in addition to pain management.