Genomic and biochemical insights into the specificity of ETS transcription factors.

ETS proteins are a group of evolutionarily related, DNA-binding transcriptional factors. These proteins direct gene expression in diverse normal and disease states by binding to specific promoters and enhancers and facilitating assembly of other components of the transcriptional machinery. The highly conserved DNA-binding ETS domain defines the family and is responsible for specific recognition of a common sequence motif, 5'-GGA(A/T)-3'. Attaining specificity for biological regulation in such a family is thus a conundrum. We present the current knowledge of routes to functional diversity and DNA binding specificity, including divergent properties of the conserved ETS and PNT domains, the involvement of flanking structured and unstructured regions appended to these dynamic domains, posttranslational modifications, and protein partnerships with other DNA-binding proteins and coregulators. The review emphasizes recent advances from biochemical and biophysical approaches, as well as insights from genomic studies that detect ETS-factor occupancy in living cells.

Dual views of SRF: a genomic exposure.

Esnault and colleagues (pp. 943-958) take a genomics approach to investigate the role of SRF (serum response factor) in the serum response of fibroblasts. The well-established dual role of SRF with alternative cofactors and responsiveness to two signaling pathways is illustrated at the genome-wide level, yet new insight comes from this global picture.

Gene deregulation and chronic activation in natural killer cells deficient in the transcription factor ETS1.

Multiple transcription factors guide the development of mature functional natural killer (NK) cells, yet little is known about their function. We used global gene expression and genome-wide binding analyses combined with developmental and functional studies to unveil three roles for the ETS1 transcription factor in NK cells. ETS1 functions at the earliest stages of NK cell development to promote expression of critical transcriptional regulators including T-BET and ID2, NK cell receptors (NKRs) including NKp46, Ly49H, and Ly49D, and signaling molecules essential for NKR function. As a consequence, Ets1(-/-) NK cells fail to degranulate after stimulation through activating NKRs. Nonetheless, these cells are hyperresponsive to cytokines and have characteristics of chronic stimulation including increased expression of inhibitory NKRs and multiple activation-associated genes. Therefore, ETS1 regulates a broad gene expression program in NK cells that promotes target cell recognition while limiting cytokine-driven activation.

Electrostatic repulsion causes anticooperative DNA binding between tumor suppressor ETS transcription factors and JUN-FOS at composite DNA sites.

Many different transcription factors (TFs) regulate gene expression in a combinatorial fashion, often by binding in close proximity to each other on composite cis-regulatory DNA elements. Here, we investigated how ETS TFs bind with the AP1 TFs JUN-FOS at composite DNA-binding sites. DNA-binding ability with JUN-FOS correlated with the phenotype of ETS proteins in prostate cancer. We found that the oncogenic ETS-related gene (ERG) and ETS variant (ETV) 1/4/5 subfamilies co-occupy ETS-AP1 sites with JUN-FOS in vitro, whereas JUN-FOS robustly inhibited DNA binding by the tumor suppressors ETS homologous factor (EHF) and SAM pointed domain-containing ETS TF (SPDEF). EHF bound ETS-AP1 DNA with tighter affinity than ERG in the absence of JUN-FOS, possibly enabling EHF to compete with ERG and JUN-FOS for binding to ETS-AP1 sites. Genome-wide mapping of EHF- and ERG-binding sites in prostate epithelial cells revealed that EHF is preferentially excluded from closely spaced ETS-AP1 DNA sequences. Structural modeling and mutational analyses indicated that adjacent positively charged surfaces from EHF and JUN-FOS use electrostatic repulsion to disfavor simultaneous DNA binding. Conservation of positive residues on the JUN-FOS interface identified E74-like ETS TF 1 (ELF1) as an additional ETS TF exhibiting anticooperative DNA binding with JUN-FOS, and we found that ELF1 is frequently down-regulated in prostate cancer. In summary, divergent electrostatic features of ETS TFs at their JUN-FOS interface enable distinct binding events at ETS-AP1 DNA sites, which may drive specific targeting of ETS TFs to facilitate distinct transcriptional programs.

Structured and disordered regions cooperatively mediate DNA-binding autoinhibition of ETS factors ETV1, ETV4 and ETV5.

Autoinhibition enables spatial and temporal regulation of cellular processes by coupling protein activity to surrounding conditions, often via protein partnerships or signaling pathways. We report the molecular basis of DNA-binding autoinhibition of ETS transcription factors ETV1, ETV4 and ETV5, which are often overexpressed in prostate cancer. Inhibitory elements that cooperate to repress DNA binding were identified in regions N- and C-terminal of the ETS domain. Crystal structures of these three factors revealed an α-helix in the C-terminal inhibitory domain that packs against the ETS domain and perturbs the conformation of its DNA-recognition helix. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy demonstrated that the N-terminal inhibitory domain (NID) is intrinsically disordered, yet utilizes transient intramolecular interactions with the DNA-recognition helix of the ETS domain to mediate autoinhibition. Acetylation of selected lysines within the NID activates DNA binding. This investigation revealed a distinctive mechanism for DNA-binding autoinhibition in the ETV1/4/5 subfamily involving a network of intramolecular interactions not present in other ETS factors. These distinguishing inhibitory elements provide a platform through which cellular triggers, such as protein-protein interactions or post-translational modifications, may specifically regulate the function of these oncogenic proteins.

Oncogenic ETS proteins mimic activated RAS/MAPK signaling in prostate cells.

The aberrant expression of an oncogenic ETS transcription factor is implicated in the progression of the majority of prostate cancers, 40% of melanomas, and most cases of gastrointestinal stromal tumor and Ewing's sarcoma. Chromosomal rearrangements in prostate cancer result in overexpression of any one of four ETS transcription factors. How these four oncogenic ETS genes differ from the numerous other ETS genes expressed in normal prostate and contribute to tumor progression is not understood. We report that these oncogenic ETS proteins, but not other ETS factors, enhance prostate cell migration. Genome-wide binding analysis matched this specific biological function to occupancy of a unique set of genomic sites highlighted by the presence of ETS- and AP-1-binding sequences. ETS/AP-1-binding sequences are prototypical RAS-responsive elements, but oncogenic ETS proteins activated a RAS/MAPK transcriptional program in the absence of MAPK activation. Thus, overexpression of oncogenic ETS proteins can replace RAS/MAPK pathway activation in prostate cells. The genomic description of this ETS/AP-1-regulated, RAS-responsive, gene expression program provides a resource for understanding the role of these ETS factors in both an oncogenic setting and the developmental processes where these genes normally function.

Synergy of aromatic residues and phosphoserines within the intrinsically disordered DNA-binding inhibitory elements of the Ets-1 transcription factor.

The E26 transformation-specific (Ets-1) transcription factor is autoinhibited by a conformationally disordered serine-rich region (SRR) that transiently interacts with its DNA-binding ETS domain. In response to calcium signaling, autoinhibition is reinforced by calmodulin-dependent kinase II phosphorylation of serines within the SRR. Using mutagenesis and quantitative DNA-binding measurements, we demonstrate that phosphorylation-enhanced autoinhibition requires the presence of phenylalanine or tyrosine (ϕ) residues adjacent to the SRR phosphoacceptor serines. The introduction of additional phosphorylated Ser-ϕ-Asp, but not Ser-Ala-Asp, repeats within the SRR dramatically reinforces autoinhibition. NMR spectroscopic studies of phosphorylated and mutated SRR variants, both within their native context and as separate trans-acting peptides, confirmed that the aromatic residues and phosphoserines contribute to the formation of a dynamic complex with the ETS domain. Complementary NMR studies also identified the SRR-interacting surface of the ETS domain, which encompasses its positively charged DNA-recognition interface and an adjacent region of neutral polar and nonpolar residues. Collectively, these studies highlight the role of aromatic residues and their synergy with phosphoserines in an intrinsically disordered regulatory sequence that integrates cellular signaling and gene expression.

Conformational Dynamics and the Binding of Specific and Nonspecific DNA by the Autoinhibited Transcription Factor Ets-1.

The affinity of the Ets-1 transcription factor for DNA is autoinhibited by an intrinsically disordered serine-rich region (SRR) and a helical inhibitory module (IM) appended to its winged helix-turn-helix ETS domain. Using NMR spectroscopy, we investigated how Ets-1 recognizes specific versus nonspecific DNA, with a focus on the roles of protein dynamics and autoinhibition in these processes. Upon binding either DNA, the two marginally stable N-terminal helices of the IM predominantly unfold, but still sample partially ordered conformations. Also, on the basis of amide chemical shift perturbation mapping, Ets-1 associates with both specific and nonspecific DNA through the same canonical ETS domain interface. These interactions are structurally independent of the SRR, and thus autoinhibition does not impart DNA-binding specificity. However, relative to the pronounced NMR spectroscopic changes in Ets-1 resulting from specific DNA binding, the spectra of the nonspecific DNA complexes showed conformational exchange broadening and lacked several diagnostic amide and indole signals attributable to hydrogen bonding interactions seen in reported X-ray crystallographic structures of this transcription factor with its cognate DNA sequences. Such differences are highlighted by the chemical shift and relaxation properties of several interfacial lysine and arginine side chains. Collectively, these data support a general model in which Ets-1 interacts with nonspecific DNA via dynamic electrostatic interactions, whereas hydrogen bonding drives the formation of well-ordered complexes with specific DNA.

Interaction of the Jhd2 Histone H3 Lys-4 Demethylase with Chromatin Is Controlled by Histone H2A Surfaces and Restricted by H2B Ubiquitination.

Histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) methylation is a dynamic modification. In budding yeast, H3K4 methylation is catalyzed by the Set1-COMPASS methyltransferase complex and is removed by Jhd2, a JMJC domain family demethylase. The catalytic JmjC and JmjN domains of Jhd2 have the ability to remove all three degrees (mono-, di-, and tri-) of H3K4 methylation. Jhd2 also contains a plant homeodomain (PHD) finger required for its chromatin association and H3K4 demethylase functions. The Jhd2 PHD finger associates with chromatin independent of H3K4 methylation and the H3 N-terminal tail. Therefore, how Jhd2 associates with chromatin to perform H3K4 demethylation has remained unknown. We report a novel interaction between the Jhd2 PHD finger and histone H2A. Two residues in H2A (Phe-26 and Glu-57) serve as a binding site for Jhd2 in vitro and mediate its chromatin association and H3K4 demethylase functions in vivo. Using RNA sequencing, we have identified the functional target genes for Jhd2 and the H2A Phe-26 and Glu-57 residues. We demonstrate that H2A Phe-26 and Glu-57 residues control chromatin association and H3K4 demethylase functions of Jhd2 during positive or negative regulation of transcription at target genes. Importantly, we show that H2B Lys-123 ubiquitination blocks Jhd2 from accessing its binding site on chromatin, and thereby, we have uncovered a second mechanism by which H2B ubiquitination contributes to the trans-histone regulation of H3K4 methylation. Overall, our study provides novel insights into the chromatin binding dynamics and H3K4 demethylase functions of Jhd2.

Ras signaling requires dynamic properties of Ets1 for phosphorylation-enhanced binding to coactivator CBP.

Ras/MAPK signaling is often aberrantly activated in human cancers. The downstream effectors are transcription factors, including those encoded by the ETS gene family. Using cell-based assays and biophysical measurements, we have determined the mechanism by which Ras/MAPK signaling affects the function of Ets1 via phosphorylation of Thr38 and Ser41. These ERK2 phosphoacceptors lie within the unstructured N-terminal region of Ets1, immediately adjacent to the PNT domain. NMR spectroscopic analyses demonstrated that the PNT domain is a four-helix bundle (H2-H5), resembling the SAM domain, appended with two additional helices (H0-H1). Phosphorylation shifted a conformational equilibrium, displacing the dynamic helix H0 from the core bundle. The affinity of Ets1 for the TAZ1 (or CH1) domain of the coactivator CBP was enhanced 34-fold by phosphorylation, and this binding was sensitive to ionic strength. NMR-monitored titration experiments mapped the interaction surfaces of the TAZ1 domain and Ets1, the latter encompassing both the phosphoacceptors and PNT domain. Charge complementarity of these surfaces indicate that electrostatic forces act in concert with a conformational equilibrium to mediate phosphorylation effects. We conclude that the dynamic helical elements of Ets1, appended to a conserved structural core, constitute a phospho-switch that directs Ras/MAPK signaling to downstream changes in gene expression. This detailed structural and mechanistic information will guide strategies for targeting ETS proteins in human disease.

ETS-4 is a transcriptional regulator of life span in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Aging is a complex phenotype responsive to a plethora of environmental inputs; yet only a limited number of transcriptional regulators are known to influence life span. How the downstream expression programs mediated by these factors (or others) are coordinated into common or distinct set of aging effectors is an addressable question in model organisms, such as C. elegans. Here, we establish the transcription factor ETS-4, an ortholog of vertebrate SPDEF, as a longevity determinant. Adult worms with ets-4 mutations had a significant extension of mean life span. Restoring ETS-4 activity in the intestine, but not neurons, of ets-4 mutant worms rescued life span to wild-type levels. Using RNAi, we demonstrated that ets-4 is required post-developmentally to regulate adult life span; thus uncoupling the role of ETS-4 in aging from potential functions in worm intestinal development. Seventy ETS-4-regulated genes, identified by gene expression profiling of two distinct ets-4 alleles and analyzed by bioinformatics, were enriched for known longevity effectors that function in lipid transport, lipid metabolism, and innate immunity. Putative target genes were enriched for ones that change expression during normal aging, the majority of which are controlled by the GATA factors. Also, some ETS-4-regulated genes function downstream of the FOXO factor, DAF-16 and the insulin/IGF-1 signaling pathway. However, epistasis and phenotypic analyses indicate that ets-4 functioned in parallel to the insulin/IGF-1 receptor, daf-2 and akt-1/2 kinases. Furthermore, ets-4 required daf-16 to modulate aging, suggesting overlap in function at the level of common targets that affect life span. In conclusion, ETS-4 is a new transcriptional regulator of aging, which shares transcriptional targets with GATA and FOXO factors, suggesting that overlapping pathways direct common sets of lifespan-related genes.

DNA specificity determinants associate with distinct transcription factor functions.

To elucidate how genomic sequences build transcriptional control networks, we need to understand the connection between DNA sequence and transcription factor binding and function. Binding predictions based solely on consensus predictions are limited, because a single factor can use degenerate sequence motifs and because related transcription factors often prefer identical sequences. The ETS family transcription factor, ETS1, exemplifies these challenges. Unexpected, redundant occupancy of ETS1 and other ETS proteins is observed at promoters of housekeeping genes in T cells due to common sequence preferences and the presence of strong consensus motifs. However, ETS1 exhibits a specific function in T cell activation; thus, unique transcriptional targets are predicted. To uncover the sequence motifs that mediate specific functions of ETS1, a genome-wide approach, chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq), identified both promoter and enhancer binding events in Jurkat T cells. A comparison with DNase I sensitivity both validated the dataset and also improved accuracy. Redundant occupancy of ETS1 with the ETS protein GABPA occurred primarily in promoters of housekeeping genes, whereas ETS1 specific occupancy occurred in the enhancers of T cell-specific genes. Two routes to ETS1 specificity were identified: an intrinsic preference of ETS1 for a variant of the ETS family consensus sequence and the presence of a composite sequence that can support cooperative binding with a RUNX transcription factor. Genome-wide occupancy of RUNX factors corroborated the importance of this partnership. Furthermore, genome-wide occupancy of co-activator CBP indicated tight co-localization with ETS1 at specific enhancers, but not redundant promoters. The distinct sequences associated with redundant versus specific ETS1 occupancy were predictive of promoter or enhancer location and the ontology of nearby genes. These findings demonstrate that diversity of DNA binding motifs may enable variable transcription factor function at different genomic sites.

DNA binding by the ETS protein TEL (ETV6) is regulated by autoinhibition and self-association.

The ETS protein TEL, a transcriptional repressor, contains a PNT domain that, as an isolated fragment in vitro, self-associates to form a head-to-tail polymer. How such polymerization might affect the DNA-binding properties of full-length TEL is unclear. Here we report that monomeric TEL binds to a consensus ETS site with unusually low affinity (K(d) = 2.8 x 10(-8) M). A deletion analysis demonstrated that the low affinity was caused by a C-terminal inhibitory domain (CID) that attenuates DNA binding by approximately 10-fold. An NMR spectroscopically derived structure of a TEL fragment, deposited in the Protein Data Bank, revealed that the CID consists of two alpha-helices, one of which appears to block the DNA binding surface of the TEL ETS domain. Based on this structure, we substituted two conserved glutamic acids (Glu-431 and Glu-434) with alanines and found that this activated DNA binding and enhanced trypsin sensitivity in the CID. We propose that TEL displays a conformational equilibrium between inhibited and activated states and that electrostatic interactions involving these negatively charged residues play a role in stabilizing the inhibited conformation. Using a TEL dimer as a model polymer, we show that self-association facilitates cooperative binding to DNA. Cooperativity was observed on DNA duplexes containing tandem consensus ETS sites at variable spacing and orientations, suggesting flexibility in the region of TEL linking its self-associating PNT domain and DNA-binding ETS domain. We speculate that TEL compensates for the low affinity, which is caused by autoinhibition, by binding to DNA as a cooperative polymer.

The GNUMAP algorithm: unbiased probabilistic mapping of oligonucleotides from next-generation sequencing.

MOTIVATION: The advent of next-generation sequencing technologies has increased the accuracy and quantity of sequence data, opening the door to greater opportunities in genomic research. RESULTS: In this article, we present GNUMAP (Genomic Next-generation Universal MAPper), a program capable of overcoming two major obstacles in the mapping of reads from next-generation sequencing runs. First, we have created an algorithm that probabilistically maps reads to repeat regions in the genome on a quantitative basis. Second, we have developed a probabilistic Needleman-Wunsch algorithm which utilizes _prb.txt and _int.txt files produced in the Solexa/Illumina pipeline to improve the mapping accuracy for lower quality reads and increase the amount of usable data produced in a given experiment. AVAILABILITY: The source code for the software can be downloaded from http://dna.cs.byu.edu/gnumap.

Microsatellites as EWS/FLI response elements in Ewing's sarcoma.

The ETS gene family is frequently involved in chromosome translocations that cause human cancer, including prostate cancer, leukemia, and sarcoma. However, the mechanisms by which oncogenic ETS proteins, which are DNA-binding transcription factors, target genes necessary for tumorigenesis is not well understood. Ewing's sarcoma serves as a paradigm for the entire class of ETS-associated tumors because nearly all cases harbor recurrent chromosomal translocations involving ETS genes. The most common translocation in Ewing's sarcoma encodes the EWS/FLI oncogenic transcription factor. We used whole genome localization (ChIP-chip) to identify target genes that are directly bound by EWS/FLI. Analysis of the promoters of these genes demonstrated a significant over-representation of highly repetitive GGAA-containing elements (microsatellites). In a parallel approach, we found that EWS/FLI uses GGAA microsatellites to regulate the expression of some of its target genes including NR0B1, a gene required for Ewing's sarcoma oncogenesis. The microsatellite in the NR0B1 promoter bound EWS/FLI in vitro and in vivo and was both necessary and sufficient to confer EWS/FLI regulation to a reporter gene. Genome wide computational studies demonstrated that GGAA microsatellites were enriched close to EWS/FLI-up-regulated genes but not down-regulated genes. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that the ability of EWS/FLI to bind DNA and modulate gene expression through these repetitive elements depended on the number of consecutive GGAA motifs. These findings illustrate an unprecedented route to specificity for ETS proteins and use of microsatellites in tumorigenesis.

ETV4 Is Necessary for Estrogen Signaling and Growth in Endometrial Cancer Cells.

Estrogen signaling through estrogen receptor alpha (ER) plays a major role in endometrial cancer risk and progression, however, the molecular mechanisms underlying ER's regulatory role in endometrial cancer are poorly understood. In breast cancer cells, ER genomic binding is enabled by FOXA1 and GATA3, but the transcription factors that control ER genomic binding in endometrial cancer cells remain unknown. We previously identified ETV4 as a candidate factor controlling ER genomic binding in endometrial cancer cells, and here we explore the functional importance of ETV4. Homozygous deletion of ETV4, using CRISPR/Cas9, led to greatly reduced ER binding at the majority of loci normally bound by ER. Consistent with the dramatic loss of ER binding, the gene expression response to estradiol was dampened for most genes. ETV4 contributes to estrogen signaling in two distinct ways. ETV4 loss affects chromatin accessibility at some ER bound loci and impairs ER nuclear translocation. The diminished estrogen signaling upon ETV4 deletion led to decreased growth, particularly in 3D culture, where hollow organoids were formed and in vivo in the context of estrogen-dependent growth. These results show that ETV4 plays an important role in estrogen signaling in endometrial cancer cells. SIGNIFICANCE: Estrogen receptor alpha (ER) is a key oncogene in endometrial cancer. This study uncovers ETV4 as an important factor in controlling the activity of ER and the growth of endometrial cancer cells. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/canres/80/6/1234/F1.large.jpg.

Detection and assignment of phosphoserine and phosphothreonine residues by (13)C- (31)P spin-echo difference NMR spectroscopy.

A simple NMR method is presented for the identification and assignment of phosphorylated serine and threonine residues in (13)C- or (13)C/(15)N-labeled proteins. By exploiting modest (~5 Hz) 2- and 3-bond (13)C-(31)P scalar couplings, the aliphatic (1)H-(13)C signals from phosphoserines and phosphothreonines can be detected selectively in a (31)P spin-echo difference constant time (1)H-(13)C HSQC spectrum. Inclusion of the same (31)P spin-echo element within the (13)C frequency editing period of an intraHNCA or HN(CO)CA experiment allows identification of the amide (1)H(N) and (15)N signals of residues (i) for which( 13)C(alpha)(i) or ( 13)C(alpha)(i - 1), respectively, are coupled to a phosphate. Furthermore, (31)P resonance assignments can be obtained by applying selective low power cw (31)P decoupling during the spin-echo period. The approach is demonstrated using a PNT domain containing fragment of the transcription factor Ets-1, phosphorylated in vitro at Thr38 and Ser41 with the MAP kinase ERK2.

Development of High-Throughput Screening Assays for Inhibitors of ETS Transcription Factors.

ETS transcription factors from the ERG and ETV1/4/5 subfamilies are overexpressed in the majority of prostate cancer patients and contribute to disease progression. Here, we have developed two in vitro assays for the interaction of ETS transcription factors with DNA that are amenable to high-throughput screening. Using ETS1 as a model, we applied these assays to screen 110 compounds derived from a high-throughput virtual screen. We found that the use of lower-affinity DNA binding sequences, similar to those that ERG and ETV1 bind to in prostate cells, allowed for higher inhibition from many of these test compounds. Further pilot experiments demonstrated that the in vitro assays are robust for ERG, ETV1, and ETV5, three of the ETS transcription factors that are overexpressed in prostate cancer.

The Biophysical Basis for Phosphorylation-Enhanced DNA-Binding Autoinhibition of the ETS1 Transcription Factor.

The eukaryotic transcription factor ETS1 is regulated by an intrinsically disordered serine-rich region (SRR) that transiently associates with the adjacent ETS domain to inhibit DNA binding. In this study, we further elucidated the physicochemical basis for ETS1 autoinhibition by characterizing the interaction of its ETS domain with a series of synthetic peptides corresponding to the SRR. Binding is driven by the hydrophobic effect and enhanced electrostatically by phosphorylation of serines adjacent to aromatic residues in the amphipathic SRR. Structural characterization of the dynamic peptide/protein complex by NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography revealed multiple modes of binding that lead to autoinhibition by synergistically blocking the DNA-binding interface of the ETS domain and stabilizing an appended helical inhibitory module against allosterically induced unfolding. Consistent with these conclusions, the SRR peptide does not interact with DNA-bound ETS1. In addition, we found that the ETS1 SRR phosphopeptide binds to distantly related PU.1 in vitro, indicating that autoinhibition exploits features of the ETS domain that are conserved across this family of transcription factors.

Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling activates Ets-1 and Ets-2 by CBP/p300 recruitment.

Cell signaling affects gene expression by regulating the activity of transcription factors. Here, we report that mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation of Ets-1 and Ets-2, at a conserved site N terminal to their Pointed (PNT) domains, resulted in enhanced transactivation by preferential recruitment of the coactivators CREB binding protein (CBP) and p300. We discovered this phosphorylation-augmented interaction in an unbiased affinity chromatography screen of HeLa nuclear extracts by using either mock-treated or ERK2-phosphorylated ETS proteins as ligands. Binding between purified proteins demonstrated a direct interaction. Both the phosphoacceptor site, which lies in an unstructured region, and the PNT domain were required for the interaction. Minimal regions that were competent for induced CBP/p300 binding in vitro also supported MAPK-enhanced transcription in vivo. CBP coexpression potentiated MEK1-stimulated Ets-2 transactivation of promoters with Ras-responsive elements. Furthermore, CBP and Ets-2 interacted in a phosphorylation-enhanced manner in vivo. This study describes a distinctive interface for a transcription factor-coactivator complex and demonstrates a functional role for inducible CBP/p300 binding. In addition, our findings decipher the mechanistic link between Ras/MAPK signaling and two specific transcription factors that are relevant to both normal development and tumorigenesis.