Alzheimer's disease-like neuropathology in three species of oceanic dolphin.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease and the primary cause of disability and dependency among elderly humans worldwide. AD is thought to be a disease unique to humans although several other animals develop some aspects of AD-like pathology. Odontocetes (toothed whales) share traits with humans that suggest they may be susceptible to AD. The brains of 22 stranded odontocetes of five different species were examined using immunohistochemistry to investigate the presence or absence of neuropathological hallmarks of AD: amyloid-beta plaques, phospho-tau accumulation and gliosis. Immunohistochemistry revealed that all aged animals accumulated amyloid plaque pathology. In three animals of three different species of odontocete, there was co-occurrence of amyloid-beta plaques, intraneuronal accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau, neuropil threads and neuritic plaques. One animal showed well-developed neuropil threads, phospho-tau accumulation and neuritic plaques, but no amyloid plaques. Microglia and astrocytes were present as expected in all brain samples examined, but we observed differences in cell morphology and numbers between individual animals. The simultaneous occurrence of amyloid-beta plaques and hyperphosphorylated tau pathology in the brains of odontocetes shows that these three species develop AD-like neuropathology spontaneously. The significance of this pathology with respect to the health and, ultimately, death of the animals remains to be determined. However, it may contribute to the cause(s) of unexplained live-stranding in some odontocete species and supports the 'sick-leader' theory whereby healthy conspecifics in a pod mass strand due to high social cohesion.

Friend or enemy? Review of 17ß-HSD10 and its role in human health or disease.

17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17ß-HSD10) is a multifunctional human enzyme with important roles both as a structural component and also as a catalyst of many metabolic pathways. This mitochondrial enzyme has important functions in the metabolism, development and aging of the neural system, where it is involved in the homeostasis of neurosteroids, especially in regard to estradiol, changes in which make it an essential part of neurodegenerative pathology. These roles therefore, indicate that 17ß-HSD10 may be a possible druggable target for neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD), and in hormone-dependent cancer. The objective of this review was to provide a summary about physiological functions and pathological roles of 17ß-HSD10 and the modulators of its activity.

Neuroprotective actions of leptin facilitated through balancing mitochondrial morphology and improving mitochondrial function.

Mitochondrial dysfunction has a recognised role in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathophysiology. Cerebral perfusion becomes increasingly inefficient throughout ageing, leading to unbalanced mitochondrial dynamics. This effect is exaggerated by amyloid ß (Aß) and phosphorylated tau, two hallmark proteins of AD pathology. A neuroprotective role for the adipose-derived hormone, leptin, has been demonstrated in neuronal cells. However, its effects with relation to mitochondrial function in AD remain largely unknown. To address this question, we have used both a glucose-serum-deprived (CGSD) model of ischaemic stroke in SH-SY5Y cells and a Aß1-42 -treatment model of AD in differentiated hippocampal cells. Using a combination of 5,5',6,6'-tetrachloro-1,1',3,3'-tetraethylbenzimidazolylcarbocyanine iodide (JC-1) and MitoRed staining techniques, we show that leptin prevents depolarisation of the mitochondrial membrane and excessive mitochondrial fragmentation induced by both CGSD and Aß1-42 . Thereafter, we used ELISAs and a number of activity assays to reveal the biochemical underpinnings of these processes. Specifically, leptin was seen to inhibit up-regulation of the mitochondrial fission protein Fis1 and down-regulation of the mitochondrial fusion protein, Mfn2. Furthermore, leptin was seen to up-regulate the expression and activity of the antioxidant enzyme, monoamine oxidase B. Herein we provide the first demonstration that leptin is sufficient to protect against aberrant mitochondrial dynamics and resulting loss of function induced by both CGSD and Aß1-42 . We conclude that the established neuroprotective actions of leptin may be facilitated through regulation of mitochondrial dynamics.

Brain region-specific lipid alterations in the PLB4 hBACE1 knock-in mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: Lipid dysregulation is associated with several key characteristics of Alzheimer's disease (AD), including amyloid-ß and tau neuropathology, neurodegeneration, glucose hypometabolism, as well as synaptic and mitochondrial dysfunction. The ß-site amyloid precursor protein cleavage enzyme 1 (BACE1) is associated with increased amyloidogenesis, and has been affiliated with diabetes via its role in metabolic regulation. METHODS: The research presented herein investigates the role of hBACE1 in lipid metabolism and whether specific brain regions show increased vulnerability to lipid dysregulation. By utilising advanced mass spectrometry techniques, a comprehensive, quantitative lipidomics analysis was performed to investigate the phospholipid, sterol, and fatty acid profiles of the brain from the well-known PLB4 hBACE1 knock-in mouse model of AD, which also shows a diabetic phenotype, to provide insight into regional alterations in lipid metabolism. RESULTS: Results show extensive region - specific lipid alterations in the PLB4 brain compared to the wild-type, with decreases in the phosphatidylethanolamine content of the cortex and triacylglycerol content of the hippocampus and hypothalamus, but increases in the phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylinositol, and diacylglycerol content of the hippocampus. Several sterol and fatty acids were also specifically decreased in the PLB4 hippocampus. CONCLUSION: Collectively, the lipid alterations observed in the PLB4 hBACE1 knock-in AD mouse model highlights the regional vulnerability of the brain, in particular the hippocampus and hypothalamus, to lipid dysregulation, hence supports the premise that metabolic abnormalities have a central role in both AD and diabetes.

Benzothiazolyl Ureas are Low Micromolar and Uncompetitive Inhibitors of 17ß-HSD10 with Implications to Alzheimer's Disease Treatment.

Human 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 is a multifunctional protein involved in many enzymatic and structural processes within mitochondria. This enzyme was suggested to be involved in several neurological diseases, e.g., mental retardation, Parkinson's disease, or Alzheimer's disease, in which it was shown to interact with the amyloid-beta peptide. We prepared approximately 60 new compounds based on a benzothiazolyl scaffold and evaluated their inhibitory ability and mechanism of action. The most potent inhibitors contained 3-chloro and 4-hydroxy substitution on the phenyl ring moiety, a small substituent at position 6 on the benzothiazole moiety, and the two moieties were connected via a urea linker (4at, 4bb, and 4bg). These compounds exhibited IC50 values of 1-2 µM and showed an uncompetitive mechanism of action with respect to the substrate, acetoacetyl-CoA. These uncompetitive benzothiazolyl inhibitors of 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 are promising compounds for potential drugs for neurodegenerative diseases that warrant further research and development.

Approaches to CNS Drug Delivery with a Focus on Transporter-Mediated Transcytosis.

Drug delivery to the central nervous system (CNS) conferred by brain barriers is a major obstacle in the development of effective neurotherapeutics. In this review, a classification of current approaches of clinical or investigational importance for the delivery of therapeutics to the CNS is presented. This classification includes the use of formulations administered systemically that can elicit transcytosis-mediated transport by interacting with transporters expressed by transvascular endothelial cells. Neurotherapeutics can also be delivered to the CNS by means of surgical intervention using specialized catheters or implantable reservoirs. Strategies for delivering drugs to the CNS have evolved tremendously during the last two decades, yet, some factors can affect the quality of data generated in preclinical investigation, which can hamper the extension of the applications of these strategies into clinically useful tools. Here, we disclose some of these factors and propose some solutions that may prove valuable at bridging the gap between preclinical findings and clinical trials.

Novel Benzothiazole-based Ureas as 17ß-HSD10 Inhibitors, A Potential Alzheimer's Disease Treatment.

: It has long been established that mitochondrial dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients can trigger pathological changes in cell metabolism by altering metabolic enzymes such as the mitochondrial 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 (17ß-HSD10), also known as amyloid-binding alcohol dehydrogenase (ABAD). We and others have shown that frentizole and riluzole derivatives can inhibit 17ß-HSD10 and that this inhibition is beneficial and holds therapeutic merit for the treatment of AD. Here we evaluate several novel series based on benzothiazolylurea scaffold evaluating key structural and activity relationships required for the inhibition of 17ß-HSD10. Results show that the most promising of these compounds have markedly increased potency on our previously published inhibitors, with the most promising exhibiting advantageous features like low cytotoxicity and target engagement in living cells.

1-(Benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)-3-phenylureas as dual inhibitors of casein kinase 1 and ABAD enzymes for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.

Several neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD) have been connected with deregulation of casein kinase 1 (CK1) activity. Inhibition of CK1 therefore presents a potential therapeutic strategy against such pathologies. Recently, novel class of CK1-specific inhibitors with N-(benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)-2-phenylacetamide structural scaffold has been discovered. 1-(benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)-3-phenylureas, on the other hand, are known inhibitors amyloid-beta binding alcohol dehydrogenase (ABAD), an enzyme also involved in pathophysiology of AD. Based on their tight structural similarity, we decided to evaluate series of previously published benzothiazolylphenylureas, originally designed as ABAD inhibitors, for their inhibitory activity towards CK1. Several compounds were found to be submicromolar CK1 inhibitors. Moreover, two compounds were found to inhibit both, ABAD and CK1. Such dual-activity could be of advantage for AD treatment, as it would simultaneously target two distinct pathological processes involved in disease's progression. Based on PAMPA testing both compounds were suggested to permeate the blood-brain barrier, which makes them, together with their unique dual activity, interesting lead compounds for further development.

Alzheimer's disease in humans and other animals: A consequence of postreproductive life span and longevity rather than aging.

INTRODUCTION: Alzheimer's disease and diabetes mellitus are linked by epidemiology, genetics, and molecular pathogenesis. They may also be linked by the remarkable observation that insulin signaling sets the limits on longevity. In worms, flies, and mice, disrupting insulin signaling increases life span leading to speculation that caloric restriction might extend life span in man. It is our contention that man is already a long-lived organism, specifically with a remarkably high postfertility life span, and that it is this that results in the prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and diabetes. METHODS: We review evidence for this hypothesis that carries specific predictions including that other animals with exceptionally long postreproductive life span will have increased risk of both diabetes and Alzheimer's disease. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: We present novel evidence that Dolphin, like man, an animal with exceptional longevity, might be one of the very few natural models of Alzheimer's disease.

Light-sheet microscopy using an Airy beam.

Light-sheet microscopy facilitates rapid, high-contrast, volumetric imaging with minimal sample exposure. However, the rapid divergence of a traditional Gaussian light sheet restricts the field of view (FOV) that provides innate subcellular resolution. We show that the Airy beam innately yields high contrast and resolution up to a tenfold larger FOV. In contrast to the Bessel beam, which also provides an increased FOV, the Airy beam's characteristic asymmetric excitation pattern results in all fluorescence contributing positively to the contrast, enabling a step change for light-sheet microscopy.

Synthesis and evaluation of frentizole-based indolyl thiourea analogues as MAO/ABAD inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease treatment.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with an excessive accumulation of amyloid-beta peptide (Aß). Based on the multifactorial nature of AD, preparation of multi-target-directed ligands presents a viable option to address more pathological events at one time. A novel class of asymmetrical disubstituted indolyl thioureas have been designed and synthesized to interact with monoamine oxidase (MAO) and/or amyloid-binding alcohol dehydrogenase (ABAD). The design combines the features of known MAO inhibitors scaffolds (e.g. rasagiline or ladostigil) and a frentizole moiety with potential to interact with ABAD. Evaluation against MAO identified several compounds that inhibited in the low to moderate micromolar range. The most promising compound (19) inhibited human MAO-A and MAO-B with IC50 values of 6.34µM and 0.30µM, respectively. ABAD activity evaluation did not show any highly potent compound, but the compound series allowed identification of structural features to assist the future development of ABAD inhibitors. Finally, several of the compounds were found to be potent inhibitors of horseradish peroxidase (HRP), preventing the use of the Amplex™ Red assay to detect hydrogen peroxide produced by MAO, highlighting the need for serious precautions when using an enzyme-coupled assay.

Physiological and pathophysiological functions of Swiprosin-1/EFhd2 in the nervous system.

Synaptic dysfunction and dysregulation of Ca(2+) are linked to neurodegenerative processes and behavioural disorders. Our understanding of the causes and factors involved in behavioural disorders and neurodegeneration, especially Alzheimer's disease (AD), a tau-related disease, is on the one hand limited and on the other hand controversial. Here, we review recent data about the links between the Ca(2+)-binding EF-hand-containing cytoskeletal protein Swiprosin-1/EFhd2 and neurodegeneration. Specifically, we summarize the functional biochemical data obtained in vitro with the use of recombinant EFhd2 protein, and integrated them with in vivo data in order to interpret the emerging role of EFhd2 in synaptic plasticity and in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders, particularly involving the tauopathies. We also discuss its functions in actin remodelling through cofilin and small GTPases, thereby linking EFhd2, synapses and the actin cytoskeleton. Expression data and functional experiments in mice and in humans have led to the hypothesis that down-regulation of EFhd2, especially in the cortex, is involved in dementia.

Morphology-Specific Inhibition of ß-Amyloid Aggregates by 17ß-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 10.

A major hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the formation of toxic aggregates of the ß-amyloid peptide (Aß). Given that Aß peptides are known to localise within mitochondria and interact with 17ß-HSD10, a mitochondrial protein expressed at high levels in AD brains, we investigated the inhibitory potential of 17ß-HSD10 against Aß aggregation under a range of physiological conditions. Fluorescence self-quenching (FSQ) of Aß(1-42) labelled with HiLyte Fluor 555 was used to evaluate the inhibitory effect under conditions established to grow distinct Aß morphologies. 17ß-HSD10 preferentially inhibits the formation of globular and fibrillar-like structures but has no effect on the growth of amorphous plaque-like aggregates at endosomal pH 6. This work provides insights into the dependence of the Aß-17ß-HSD10 interaction with the morphology of Aß aggregates and how this impacts enzymatic function.

Activation of a synapse weakening pathway by human Val66 but not Met66 pro-brain-derived neurotrophic factor (proBDNF).

This study describes a fundamental functional difference between the two main polymorphisms of the pro-form of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (proBDNF), providing an explanation as to why these forms have such different age-related neurological outcomes. Healthy young carriers of the Met66 form (present in ∼30% Caucasians) have reduced hippocampal volume and impaired hippocampal-dependent memory function, yet the same polymorphic population shows enhanced cognitive recovery after traumatic brain injury, delayed cognitive dysfunction during aging, and lower risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) compared to those with the more common Val66 polymorphism. To examine the differences between the protein polymorphisms in structure, kinetics of binding to proBDNF receptors and in vitro function, we generated purified cleavage-resistant human variants. Intriguingly, we found no statistical differences in those characteristics. As anticipated, exogenous application of proBDNF Val66 to rat hippocampal slices dysregulated synaptic plasticity, inhibiting long-term potentiation (LTP) and facilitating long-term depression (LTD). We subsequently observed that this occurred via the glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK3ß) activation pathway. However, surprisingly, we found that Met66 had no such effects on either LTP or LTD. These novel findings suggest that, unlike Val66, the Met66 variant does not facilitate synapse weakening signaling, perhaps accounting for its protective effects with aging.

Design, synthesis and in vitro evaluation of benzothiazole-based ureas as potential ABAD/17ß-HSD10 modulators for Alzheimer's disease treatment.

Amyloid-beta peptide (Aß) has been recognized to interact with numerous proteins, which may lead to pathological changes in cell metabolism of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. One such known metabolic enzyme is mitochondrial amyloid-binding alcohol dehydrogenase (ABAD), also known as 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 (17ß-HSD10). Altered enzyme function caused by the Aß-ABAD interaction, was previously shown to cause mitochondrial distress and a consequent cytotoxic effect, therefore providing a feasible target in AD drug development. Based on previous frentizole derivatives studies, we report two novel series of benzothiazolyl ureas along with novel insights into the structure and activity relationships for inhibition of ABAD. Two compounds (37, 39) were identified as potent ABAD inhibitors, where compound 39 exhibited comparable cytotoxicity with the frentizole standard; however, one-fold higher cytotoxicity than the parent riluzole standard. The calculated and experimental physical chemical properties of the most potent compounds showed promising features for blood-brain barrier penetration.

The expanding family of FERM proteins.

Our understanding of the FERM (4.1/ezrin/radixin/moesin) protein family has been rapidly expanding in the last few years, with the result that many new physiological functions have been ascribed to these biochemically unique proteins. In the present review, we will discuss a number of new FRMD (FERM domain)-containing proteins that were initially discovered from genome sequencing but are now being established through biochemical and genetic studies to be involved both in normal cellular processes, but are also associated with a variety of human diseases.

Laser-induced breakdown of an optically trapped gold nanoparticle for single cell transfection.

The cell selective introduction of therapeutic agents remains a challenging problem. Here we demonstrate spatially controlled cavitation instigated by laser-induced breakdown of an optically trapped single gold nanoparticle of diameter 100 nm. The energy breakdown threshold of the gold nanoparticle with a single nanosecond laser pulse at 532 nm is three orders of magnitude lower than water, which leads to nanocavitation allowing single cell transfection. We quantify the shear stress to cells from the expanding bubble and optimize the pressure to be in the range of 1-10 kPa for transfection. The method shows transfection of plasmid DNA into individual mammalian cells with an efficiency of 75%.

Development of submicromolar 17ß-HSD10 inhibitors and their in vitro and in vivo evaluation.

17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10 (17ß-HSD10) is a multifunctional mitochondrial enzyme and putative drug target for the treatment of various pathologies including Alzheimer's disease or some types of hormone-dependent cancer. In this study, a series of new benzothiazolylurea-based inhibitors were developed based on the structure-activity relationship (SAR) study of previously published compounds and predictions of their physico-chemical properties. This led to the identification of several submicromolar inhibitors (IC50 ∼0.3 µM), the most potent compounds within the benzothiazolylurea class known to date. The positive interaction with 17ß-HSD10 was further confirmed by differential scanning fluorimetry and the best molecules were found to be cell penetrable. In addition, the best compounds weren't found to have additional effects for mitochondrial off-targets and cytotoxic or neurotoxic effects. The two most potent inhibitors 9 and 11 were selected for in vivo pharmacokinetic study after intravenous and peroral administration. Although the pharmacokinetic results were not fully conclusive, it seemed that compound 9 was bioavailable after peroral administration and could penetrate into the brain (brain-plasma ratio 0.56).

Inhibition of amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide-binding alcohol dehydrogenase-Abeta interaction reduces Abeta accumulation and improves mitochondrial function in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Amyloid-ß (Aß) peptide-binding alcohol dehydrogenase (ABAD), an enzyme present in neuronal mitochondria, exacerbates Aß-induced cell stress. The interaction of ABAD with Aß exacerbates Aß-induced mitochondrial and neuronal dysfunction. Here, we show that inhibition of the ABAD-Aß interaction, using a decoy peptide (DP) in vitro and in vivo, protects against aberrant mitochondrial and neuronal function and improves spatial learning/memory. Intraperitoneal administration of ABAD-DP [fused to the transduction of human immunodeficiency virus 1-transactivator (Tat) protein and linked to the mitochondrial targeting sequence (Mito) (TAT-mito-DP) to transgenic APP mice (Tg mAPP)] blocked formation of ABAD-Aß complex in mitochondria, increased oxygen consumption and enzyme activity associated with the mitochondrial respiratory chain, attenuated mitochondrial oxidative stress, and improved spatial memory. Similar protective effects were observed in Tg mAPP mice overexpressing neuronal ABAD decoy peptide (Tg mAPP/mito-ABAD). Notably, inhibition of the ABAD-Aß interaction significantly reduced mitochondrial Aß accumulation. In parallel, the activity of mitochondrial Aß-degrading enzyme PreP (presequence peptidase) was enhanced in Tg mAPP mitochondria expressing the ABAD decoy peptide. These data indicate that segregating ABAD from Aß protects mitochondria/neurons from Aß toxicity; thus, ABAD-Aß interaction is an important mechanism underlying Aß-mediated mitochondrial and neuronal perturbation. Inhibitors of ABAD-Aß interaction may hold promise as targets for the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Nanoparticle tracking analysis monitors microvesicle and exosome secretion from immune cells.

Nanoparticle tracking analysis permits the determination of both the size distribution and relative concentration of microvesicles, including exosomes, in the supernatants of cultured cells and biological fluids. We have studied the release of microvesicles from the human lymphoblastoid T-cell lines Jurkat and CEM. Unstimulated, both cell lines release microvesicles in the size range 70-90 nm, which can be depleted from the supernatant by ultracentrifugation at 100 000 g, and by anti-CD45 magnetic beads, and which by immunoblotting also contain the exosome-associated proteins Alix and Tsg101. Incubation with known potentiators of exosome release, the ionophores monensin and A23187, resulted in a significant increase in microvesicle release that was both time and concentration dependent. Mass spectrometric analysis of proteins isolated from ultracentrifuged supernatants of A23187-treated cells revealed the presence of exosome-associated proteins including heat-shock protein 90, tubulin, elongation factor α1, actin and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. Additionally, treatment of peripheral blood monocyte-derived dendritic cells with bacterial lipopolysaccharide displayed an increase in secreted microvesicles. Consequently, nanoparticle tracking analysis can be effectively applied to monitor microvesicle release from cells of the immune system.