Developmental regulation of type 1 and type 3 interferon production and risk for infant infections and asthma development.

BACKGROUND: Virus-associated febrile lower respiratory tract infections (fLRIs) during infancy have been identified as risk factors for persistent wheeze development. We hypothesized that variations in innate immune defense capacity during this period, as exemplified by production of type 1 and 3 interferons (T1/3IFNs), might be an underlying determinant of risk. OBJECTIVE: We sought to investigate relationships between postnatal development of innate interferon response capacity and susceptibility to early infections and persistent wheeze. METHODS: We studied a subset of subjects from a birth cohort at high risk for asthma/allergy and determined the capacity of cord blood cells (n = 151) to produce any of a panel of 17 T1/3IFNs in response to the viral mimic polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid using a sensitive PCR assay. We investigated relationships between neonatal interferon responses and lower respiratory tract infection history during infancy, wheezing history to 5 age years, and ensuing maturation of innate immune capacity by age 4 years (n = 160) and 10 years (n = 125). RESULTS: Although cohort subjects produced an average of 2.6 ± 0.3 of the 17 innate interferons tested at birth, 24% showed no T1/3IFN production. This nonproducer subgroup showed increased risk for infant fLRIs (odds ratio, 2.62; 95% CI, 1.14-6.06; P = .024) and persistent wheeze (odds ratio, 4.24; 95% CI, 1.60-11.24; P = .004) at age 5 years relative to those producing 1 or more T1/3IFNs, whereas risk for infant wheezy lower respiratory tract infections or "transient early wheeze" was unaffected. Moreover, infants who experienced fLRIs subsequently demonstrated accelerated development of T1/3IFN response capacity between 1 and 4 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: T1/3IFN response capacity appears strongly developmentally constrained at birth. Infants in whom this negative regulation is strongest manifest increased risk for severe respiratory tract infections during infancy and subsequent persistent wheeze.

Progressive increase of FcεRI expression across several PBMC subsets is associated with atopy and atopic asthma within school-aged children.

BACKGROUND: Antigen-specific IgE binds the Fcε receptor I (FcεRI) expressed on several types of immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs). Activation of FcεRI on DCs in atopics has been shown to modulate immune responses that potentially contribute to asthma development. However, the extent to which DC subsets differ in FcεRI expression between atopic children with or without asthma is currently not clear. This study aimed to analyse the expression of FcεRI on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from atopic children with and without asthma, and non-atopic/non-asthmatic age-matched healthy controls. METHODS: We performed multiparameter flow cytometry on PBMC from 391 children across three community cohorts and one clinical cohort based in Western Australia. RESULTS: We confirmed expression of FcεRI on basophils, monocytes, plasmacytoid and conventional DCs, with higher proportions of all cell populations expressing FcεRI in atopic compared to non-atopic children. Further, we observed that levels of FcεRI expression were elevated across plasmacytoid and conventional DC as well as basophils in atopic asthmatic compared to atopic non-asthmatic children also after adjusting for serum IgE levels. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that the expression pattern of FcεRI on DC and basophils differentiates asthmatic from non-asthmatic atopic children. Given the significant immune modulatory effects observed as a consequence of FcεRI expression, this altered expression pattern is likely to contribute to asthma pathology in children.

Anti-infective proteins in breast milk and asthma-associated phenotypes during early childhood.

BACKGROUND: The impact of breast milk feeding on susceptibility to asthma in childhood is highly controversial, due in part to failure of the majority of studies in the area to adequately account for key confounders exemplified by respiratory infection history, plus the effects of recall bias. METHODS: As part of a prospective cohort study on the role of respiratory infections in asthma development in high-risk children, we measured the concentration of a panel of anti-infective proteins in maternal milk samples and analyzed associations between these and subsequent atopy-, infection-, and asthma-related outcomes prospectively to age 10 years. RESULTS: We observed significant but transient inverse associations between the concentration of milk proteins and susceptibility to upper respiratory infections in year 1 only, and parallel but positive transient associations with early lower respiratory infections and atopy. No associations were seen with asthma-related outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Breast milk feeding may influence the expression of inflammatory symptoms associated with respiratory infections and atopy in early life, but these effects appear to be inconsistent and transient. The heterogeneous nature of breast-feeding effects suggests it may influence systemic immunoinflammatory function at several different levels.

Low maternal serum vitamin D during pregnancy and the risk for postpartum depression symptoms.

Pregnancy is a time of vulnerability for vitamin D insufficiency, and there is an emerging literature associating low levels of 25(OH)-vitamin D with depressive symptoms. However, the link between 25(OH)-vitamin D status in pregnancy and altered risk of postnatal depressive symptoms has not been examined. We hypothesise that low levels of 25(OH)-vitamin D in maternal serum during pregnancy will be associated with a higher incidence of postpartum depressive symptoms. We prospectively collected sera at 18 weeks gestation from 796 pregnant women in Perth (1989-1992) who were enrolled in the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort (Raine) Study and measured levels of 25(OH)-vitamin D. Women reported postnatal depressive symptoms at 3 days post-delivery. Women in the lowest quartile for 25(OH)-vitamin D status were more likely to report a higher level of postnatal depression symptoms than women who were in the highest quartile for vitamin D, even after accounting for a range of confounding variables including season of birth, body mass index and sociodemographic factors. Low vitamin D during pregnancy is a risk factor for the development of postpartum depression symptoms.

Maternal vitamin D levels during pregnancy and offspring eating disorder risk in adolescence.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if maternal vitamin D concentrations at 18 weeks gestation predict offspring eating disorder risk in adolescence. METHOD: Participants were 526 Caucasian mother-child dyads from the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort (Raine) Study. The Raine Study has followed participants from 18 weeks gestation to 20 years of age. Maternal serum 25(OH)-vitamin D concentrations were measured at 18 weeks pregnancy and grouped into quartiles. Offspring eating disorder symptoms were assessed at ages 14, 17 and 20 years. Core analyses were limited to female offspring (n = 308). RESULTS: Maternal 25(OH)-vitamin D quartiles were a significant predictor of eating disorder risk in female offspring, in multivariate logistic regression models. Vitamin D in the lowest quartile was associated with a 1.8-fold increase in eating disorder risk relative to concentrations in the highest quartile. This association also accounted for the relationship between offspring season of birth and eating disorder risk. Results were significant after adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, body mass index and depressive symptoms. DISCUSSION: This is the first study to link low gestational vitamin D to increased eating disorder risk in female offspring of Caucasian mothers. Research is needed to extend these findings and to consider how gestational vitamin D may relate to the pathogenesis of eating disorders.

Antibacterial antibody responses associated with the development of asthma in house dust mite-sensitised and non-sensitised children.

BACKGROUND: Infants who develop house dust mite (HDM) allergy and HDM-sensitised children with severe persistent asthma have low antibody responses to the P6 antigen of Haemophilus influenzae. OBJECTIVE: To measure the development of antibody to two ubiquitous bacteria of the respiratory mucosa in a prospective birth cohort at high risk of allergic disease and to assess which responses are associated with asthma and atopy. METHODS: IgG1 and IgG4 antibody to H influenzae (P4 and P6) and Streptoccocus pneumoniae (PspA and PspC) surface antigens was measured in yearly blood samples of children aged 1-5 years. IgE to the P6 antigen was examined for the 5-year group. The children were stratified based on HDM sensitisation and asthma at 5 years of age. RESULTS: HDM-sensitised children had lower IgG1 antibody titres to the bacterial antigens, and early responses (<3 years and before the development of HDM sensitisation and asthma) corrected for multiple antigens were significantly reduced for P4, P6 and PspC (p=0.008, p=0.004 and p=0.028, respectively). Similar associations with asthma were also found (p=0.008, p=0.004 and p=0.032 for P4, P6 and PspC, respectively). The IgG4 antibody titre and prevalence were similar in both HDM-sensitised and non-sensitised groups, but sensitised children had a slower downregulation of the IgG4 response. Children with asthma (27/145 at 5 years) had lower anti-P6 IgE responses (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: HDM-sensitised children have early defective antibody responses to bacteria that are associated with asthma. Surprisingly, antibacterial IgE was associated with a reduced risk for asthma.

Management of childhood asthma in Western Australia.

AIMS: The study aimed to determine how childhood asthma is managed in Western Australia by general practitioners (GPs) and specialist paediatricians. METHODS: A questionnaire survey was sent to 992 GPs and specialist paediatricians, asking about practice and preferences regarding maintenance management of childhood asthma and treatment of acute asthma. Questions about asthma in infants, pre-school and school-aged children were asked separately. RESULTS: The overall response rate was 24.7%, with 188/878 (21.4%) of GPs and 44/62 (71.0%) of paediatricians returning the questionnaire. The decision to start maintenance therapy was generally based on symptom frequency and severity. The first choice for maintenance treatment in all age groups was inhaled corticosteroids (ICS). The second most common treatment varied according to age group, with short-acting beta(2)-agonist (SBA) preferred for infants, montelukast or short-acting beta(2)-agonist for pre-schoolers and combination therapy (ICS + long action beta(2)-agonist) for school-aged children. Objective monitoring of lung function with peak flow or spirometry, was used by 40% of GPs and 59% of paediatricians. Acute asthma was primarily managed with inhaled salbutamol and oral corticosteroids. There were few differences in treatment choice between GPs and paediatricians. Many GPs indicated that they did not treat asthma in infants without specialist consultation. CONCLUSIONS: These data show good compliance by the minority of GPs responding to the survey and by paediatricians practising in Western Australia with current Australian asthma management guidelines. Major differences in treatment preferences between the groups were not detected.

Role of respiratory viruses in acute upper and lower respiratory tract illness in the first year of life: a birth cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: Although acute respiratory illnesses (ARI) are major causes of morbidity and mortality in early childhood worldwide, little progress has been made in their control and prophylaxis. Most studies have focused on hospitalized children or children from closed populations. It is essential that the viral etiology of these clinical diseases be accurately defined in the development of antiviral drugs. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the role of all common respiratory viruses as upper and lower respiratory tract pathogens in the first year of life. STUDY DESIGN: This community-based birth cohort study prospectively collected detailed information on all ARI contracted by 263 infants from birth until 1 year of age. Nasopharyngeal aspirates were collected for each ARI episode, and all common respiratory viruses were detected by polymerase chain reaction. Episodes were classified as upper respiratory illnesses or lower respiratory illnesses (LRI), with or without wheeze. RESULTS: The majority reported 2-5 episodes of ARI in the first year (range, 0-11 episodes; mean, 4.1). One-third were LRI, and 29% of these were associated with wheeze. Viruses were detected in 69% of ARI; most common were rhinoviruses (48.5%) and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) (10.9%). Compared with RSV, >10 times the number of upper respiratory illnesses and >3 times the number of both LRI and wheezing LRI were attributed to rhinoviruses. CONCLUSION: Rhinoviruses are the major upper and lower respiratory pathogens in the first year of life. Although RSV is strongly associated with severe LRI requiring hospitalization, the role of rhinoviruses as the major lower respiratory pathogens in infants has not previously been recognized.

Vitamin D in fetal development: findings from a birth cohort study.

Birth cohort studies provide an invaluable resource for studies of the influence of the fetal environment on health in later life. It is uncertain to what extent maternal vitamin D status influences fetal development. Using an unselected community-based cohort of 901 mother-offspring pairs (the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort [Raine] Study), we examined the relationship between maternal vitamin D deficiency at 18 weeks' pregnancy and long-term health outcomes of offspring who were born in Perth, Western Australia (32° South), in 1989-1991. Vitamin D deficiency (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] <50 nmol/L) was present in 36% (323 of 901) of the pregnant women. After adjusting for relevant covariates, maternal vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy was associated with impaired lung development in 6-year-old offspring, neurocognitive difficulties at age 10, increased risk of eating disorders in adolescence, and lower peak bone mass at 20 years. In summary, vitamin D may have an important, multifaceted role in the development of fetal lungs, brain, and bone. Experimental animal studies support an active contribution of vitamin D to organ development. Randomized controlled trials of vitamin D supplementation in pregnant women with long-term follow-up of offspring are urgently required to examine whether the correction of vitamin D deficiency in pregnant women is beneficial for their offspring and to determine the optimal level of maternal serum 25(OH)D for fetal development.

Vitamin D deficiency at 16 to 20 weeks' gestation is associated with impaired lung function and asthma at 6 years of age.

RATIONALE: Vitamin D deficiency is associated with chronic lung disease. We have previously shown in an in vivo mouse model that maternal vitamin D deficiency is associated with alterations in early life lung structure and function. However, there are limited data to support a relationship between maternal vitamin D deficiency during the early stages of lung development and postnatal lung function in human populations. OBJECTIVES: To assess the association between maternal vitamin D deficiency, postnatal lung function, and asthmatic status in a longitudinal birth cohort. METHODS: Serum was collected at 16 to 20 weeks' gestation at the time of recruitment in a community-based prospective birth cohort for measurement of vitamin D (25[OH]D). Lung function was assessed by spirometry according to American Thoracic Society guidelines in children at 6 and 14 years of age. Demographic and clinical history data were collected by questionnaire at recruitment and at the follow-up visits. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: FVC Z-scores in both sexes (ß, 0.007 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.001-0.013]; P = 0.02) and FEV1 Z-scores in girls (ß, 0.007 [95% CI, 0.001-0.013]; P = 0.02) were positively associated with maternal serum 25(OH)D at 6 years of age. These associations were mostly absent at 14 years of age. Maternal vitamin D deficiency was positively associated with asthma at 6 years of age but only in boys (odds ratio, 3.03 [95% CI, 1.02-9.02]; P = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the notion that vitamin D deficiency during lung development may impact on postnatal lung growth and increase the risk of developing lung disease.

Maternal vitamin D levels and the autism phenotype among offspring.

We tested whether maternal vitamin D insufficiency during pregnancy is related to the autism phenotype. Serum 25(OH)-vitamin D concentrations of 929 women were measured at 18 weeks' pregnancy. The mothers of the three children with a clinical diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder had 25(OH)-vitamin D concentrations above the population mean. The offspring of 406 women completed the Autism-Spectrum Quotient in early adulthood. Maternal 25(OH)-vitamin D concentrations were unrelated to offspring scores on the majority of scales. However, offspring of mothers with low 25(OH)-vitamin D concentrations (<49 nmol/L) were at increased risk for 'high' scores (≥2SD above mean) on the Attention Switching subscale (odds ratio: 5.46, 95% confidence interval: 1.29, 23.05). The involvement of maternal vitamin D during pregnancy in autism requires continued investigation.

Respiratory impedance and bronchodilator responsiveness in healthy children aged 2-13 years.

BACKGROUND: The forced oscillation technique (FOT) can be used in children as young as 2 years of age and in those unable to perform routine spirometry. There is limited information on changes in FOT outcomes in healthy children beyond the preschool years and the level of bronchodilator responsiveness (BDR) in healthy children. We aimed to create reference ranges for respiratory impedance outcomes collated from multiple centers. Outcomes included respiratory system resistance (R(rs)) and reactance (X(rs)), resonant frequency (Fres), frequency dependence of R(rs) (Fdep), and the area under the reactance curve (AX). We also aimed to define the physiological effects of bronchodilators in a large population of healthy children using the FOT. METHODS: Respiratory impedance was measured in 760 healthy children, aged 2-13 years, from Australia and Italy. Stepwise linear regression identified anthropometric predictors of transformed R(rs) and X(rs) at 6, 8, and 10 Hz, Fres, Fdep, and AX. Bronchodilator response (BDR) was assessed in 508 children after 200 µg of inhaled salbutamol. RESULTS: Regression analysis showed that R(rs), X(rs), and AX outcomes were dependent on height and sex. The BDR cut-offs by absolute change in R(rs8), X(rs8), and AX were -2.74 hPa s L(-1), 1.93 hPa s L(-1), and -33 hPa s L(-1), respectively. These corresponded to relative and Z-score changes of -32%; -1.85 for R(rs8), 65%; 1.95 for X(rs8), and -82%; -2.04 for AX. CONCLUSIONS: We have established generalizable reference ranges for respiratory impedance and defined cut-offs for a positive bronchodilator response using the FOT in healthy children.

Maternal serum vitamin D levels during pregnancy and offspring neurocognitive development.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the association between maternal serum 25(OH)-vitamin D concentrations during a critical window of fetal neurodevelopment and behavioral, emotional, and language outcomes of offspring. METHODS: Serum 25(OH)-vitamin D concentrations of 743 Caucasian women in Perth, Western Australia (32°S) were measured at 18 weeks pregnancy and grouped into quartiles. Offspring behavior was measured with the Child Behavior Checklist at 2, 5, 8, 10, 14, and 17 years of age (n range = 412-652). Receptive language was assessed with the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised at ages 5 (n = 534) and 10 (n = 474) years. Raw scores were converted to standardized scores, incorporating cutoffs for clinically significant levels of difficulty. RESULTS: χ(2) analyses revealed no significant associations between maternal 25(OH)-vitamin D serum quartiles and offspring behavioral/emotional problems at any age. In contrast, there were significant linear trends between quartiles of maternal vitamin D levels and language impairment at 5 and 10 years of age. Multivariate regression analyses, incorporating a range of confounding variables, found that the risk of women with vitamin D insufficiency (≤46 nmol/L) during pregnancy having a child with clinically significant language difficulties was increased close to twofold compared with women with vitamin D levels >70 nmol/L. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal vitamin D insufficiency during pregnancy is significantly associated with offspring language impairment. Maternal vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy may reduce the risk of developmental language difficulties among their children.

Exhaled breath temperature in healthy children is influenced by room temperature and lung volume.

BACKGROUND: Exhaled breath temperature (EBT) has been proposed for the non-invasive assessment of airway inflammation. Previous studies have not examined the influence of room temperature or lung size on the EBT. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to address these issues in healthy children. METHODS: We assessed the effects of room temperature and lung volume in 60 healthy children aged 9-11 years (mean age 10.3 years, 33 male). Static lung volumes were assessed using multiple breath nitrogen washout. Questionnaire and skin prick tests were also used to establish respiratory health in the children. We obtained the EBT parameters of slope, end plateau temperature (PLET) and normalized plateau temperature (nPLET; plateau temperature minus inspired air temperature), and ascertained physiological factors influencing EBT. RESULTS: End plateau temperature was shown to be proportionally affected by room temperature (r = 0.532, P < 0.001) whereas slope and nPLET decreased with increasing room temperature (r = -0.392 P < 0.02 and r = -0.507 P = 0.002). After adjusting for room temperature, height and age, the total lung capacity (r(2) = 0.435, P = 0.006) and slow vital capacity (SVC; r(2) = 0.44, P = 0.005) were found to be the strongest predictors of end PLET in healthy children. When all factors were included in a multiple regression model, SVC and room temperature were the only predictors of plateau and nPLET. Slope was only influenced by room temperature. CONCLUSIONS: Exhaled breath temperature measurements are highly feasible in children with a 95% success rate in this healthy population. Room temperature and SVC significantly influence EBT variables in healthy children. Further studies are required to investigate the ability of EBT to assess airway inflammation in children with respiratory disease. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 2011; 46:1062-1068. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Occurrence and management of acute respiratory illnesses in early childhood.

AIM: Acute respiratory illnesses (ARI) impose massive economic burden on health services. The growing costs, limited benefits of pharmacotherapeutic agents, and alarming rise in antibiotic resistance poses a major health challenge. Analysis of the nature and burden of ARI through well-designed epidemiologic studies will help in the development of a uniform public health approach to identify methods to reduce disease transmission and maximise prevention strategies. The aim of this study was to analyse the nature and magnitude of the burden of ARI encountered by a cohort of children in the first 5 years of life. METHODS: This community-based prospective study of ARI followed a cohort of children from birth until 5 years of age. Information on all episodes of ARI encountered, and their management, was collected through daily symptom diary and fortnightly telephone calls. RESULTS: Four episodes of ARI/year were reported in the first 2 years and 2-3 episodes/year between 2 and 5 years. The majority were upper respiratory infections. 53% had at least one lower respiratory infection in the first year. For the majority, symptoms lasted 1-2 weeks. 53% were treated with antitussives or cough mixtures, 44% with paracetamol and 23% with antibiotics. A total of 46% of the episodes presented to a family physician, with younger children and those with lower respiratory infection more likely to seek attention. CONCLUSION: ARI are common in childhood and although symptoms may last for 4 weeks, the majority resolve spontaneously. Use of medication does not appear to significantly alter the course or duration of symptoms of ARI.

Early-life respiratory viral infections, atopic sensitization, and risk of subsequent development of persistent asthma.

BACKGROUND: Severe lower respiratory infections (LRIs) and atopic sensitization have been identified as independent risk factors for asthma. OBJECTIVE: The nature of potential interactions between these risk factors was the subject of this study. METHODS: A community-based cohort of 198 children at high atopic risk was followed from birth to 5 years. All episodes of acute respiratory illness in the first year were recorded and postnasal aspirates were collected for viral identification. History of wheeze and asthma was collected annually, and atopy was assessed at 6 months, 2 years, and 5 years. RESULTS: A total of 815 episodes of acute respiratory illness were reported, and 33% were LRIs. Viruses were detected in 69% of aspirates, most commonly rhinoviruses (48.3%) and respiratory syncytial virus (10.9%). At 5 years, 28.3% (n = 56) had current wheeze, and this was associated with wheezy [odds ratio (OR), 3.4 (1.2-9.7); P = .02] and/or febrile LRI [OR, 3.9 (1.4-10.5); P = .007], in particular those caused by respiratory syncytial virus or rhinoviruses [OR, 4.1 (1.3-12.6); P = .02]. Comparable findings were made for current asthma. Strikingly these associations were restricted to children who displayed early sensitization (< or =2 years old) and not observed in nonatopic patients or those sensitized later. CONCLUSION: These data suggest viral infections interact with atopy in infancy to promote later asthma. Notably the occurrence of both of these events during this narrow developmental window is associated with maximal risk for subsequent asthma, which suggests a contribution from both classes of inflammatory insults to disease pathogenesis. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Protection of "high-risk" children against the effects of severe respiratory infections during infancy may represent an effective strategy for primary asthma prevention. The potential benefits of these strategies merit more careful evaluation in this age group.

Assessment of bronchodilator responsiveness in preschool children using forced oscillations.

BACKGROUND: The forced oscillation technique (FOT) requires minimal patient cooperation and is feasible in preschool children. Few data exist on respiratory function changes measured using FOT following inhaled bronchodilators (BD) in healthy young children, limiting the clinical applications of BD testing in this age group. A study was undertaken to determine the most appropriate method of quantifying BD responses using FOT in healthy young children and those with common respiratory conditions including cystic fibrosis, neonatal chronic lung disease and asthma and/or current wheeze. METHODS: A pseudorandom FOT signal (4-48 Hz) was used to examine respiratory resistance and reactance at 6, 8 and 10 Hz; 3-5 acceptable measurements were made before and 15 min after the administration of salbutamol. The post-BD response was expressed in absolute and relative (percentage of baseline) terms. RESULTS: Significant BD responses were seen in all groups. Absolute changes in BD responses were related to baseline lung function within each group. Relative changes in BD responses were less dependent on baseline lung function and were independent of height in healthy children. Those with neonatal chronic lung disease showed a strong baseline dependence in their responses. The BD response in children with cystic fibrosis, asthma or wheeze (based on both group mean data and number of responders) was not greater than in healthy children. CONCLUSIONS: The BD response assessed by the FOT in preschool children should be expressed as a relative change to account for the effect of baseline lung function. The limits for a positive BD response of -40% and 65% for respiratory resistance and reactance, respectively, are recommended.

Respiratory function in healthy young children using forced oscillations.

BACKGROUND: Monitoring of respiratory function is important in the diagnosis and management of respiratory disease. The forced oscillation technique requires minimal patient cooperation and is ideal for the determination of respiratory function in young children. This study aimed to develop reference ranges and to document the repeatability in healthy young children using commercially available forced oscillation equipment. METHODS: The forced oscillation technique, which uses a pseudo-random noise forcing signal between 4 and 48 Hz, was used to measure respiratory function in healthy young children. Repeatability over a 15 min period was also assessed. Regression equations and standardised Z scores were determined for respiratory resistance (Rrs) and reactance (Xrs) at 6, 8 and 10 Hz. RESULTS: Respiratory function was obtained in 158 healthy children aged two to seven years and between 92 and 127 cm in height. Oscillatory respiratory mechanics exhibited linear relationships with height. Within-test variability for resistance ranged between 6% and 9% and between 17% and 20% for reactance. Resistance and reactance did not change significantly over a 15 min period. CONCLUSIONS: Reference ranges for respiratory impedance variables in healthy children aged two to seven years are presented. The short-term repeatability of forced oscillatory variables in this age group is reported, allowing appropriate cut-off values for therapeutic interventions to be defined.

Atopy, eczema and breast milk fatty acids in a high-risk cohort of children followed from birth to 5 yr.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of atopic diseases such as eczema is increasing in westernized societies. The suggestion that there is a "protective" association between the unique fatty acid composition of breast milk, particularly the omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (n-6) essential polyunsaturated fatty acid content, and the development of atopic disease in children was investigated in a cohort study of 263 infants born into families with a history of allergy (one or both parents had asthma, hayfever, eczema). The objectives of this study were to determine the lipid profile [specifically in relation to long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) composition] in maternal breast milk samples collected at 6 wk and at 6 months following birth, and to investigate the potential role of these fatty acids in modulating the phenotype of children at high genetic risk of developing atopic disease. METHOD: Breast milk samples were available from 91 atopic mothers at their child's ages of 6 wk and 6 months. These samples were analysed for the fatty acid spectrum. Analysis of variance was used to detect differences between groups of outcomes (no atopy or eczema, non-atopic eczema, atopy, atopic eczema) at ages 6 months and 5 yr, and a multiple comparisons procedure was conducted to isolate the parameters producing the different results (F-test, LSD test). For the exposure variables, n-3 and n-6 fatty acids are expressed as weight percentage and as a ratio (at both time-points). RESULTS: The fatty acid profiles of maternal breast milk at 6 wk and 6 months were similar. An increased ratio of n-6: n-3 fatty acids in both 6 wk and 6 month milk samples was associated with non-atopic eczema (p < 0.005) but not atopy alone or atopic eczema. CONCLUSION: We found milk fatty acids were a significant modulator of non-atopic eczema but not atopy or atopic eczema in infants at 6 months. In mothers with a history of asthma, hayfever or eczema, their 6-month-old infants were more likely to develop non-atopic eczema if their milk had a higher ratio of n-6: n-3 LC-PUFA.

Support for 2 variants of eczema.

BACKGROUND: Studies investigating the natural history and risk factors for eczema have historically considered eczema as a single entity, without regard for the individual's atopic status. The association between atopy and eczema is complex, and as many as (2/3) of patients with eczema are not atopic. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the risk factors for eczema in relation to the child's atopic status in a cohort of high-risk children. METHODS: A prospective birth cohort of 263 children was followed for 5 years and closely examined for eczema. Antenatal and postnatal data on environmental exposures were collected by interview. Skin prick test to define atopic status was performed at 6 months and 2 and 5 years of age. RESULTS: Of the subjects, 66.1% had eczema in the first 5 years, and the majority (85.5%) reported onset of rash in the first year. A third of those with eczema were not atopic (nonatopic/intrinsic eczema). Children with atopic eczema (extrinsic eczema) were more likely to be male, to have been breast-fed longer, and to have a history of food allergies, allergic rhinitis, and current wheeze. Nonatopic eczema was more common in girls, and an association was found with early daycare attendance. CONCLUSION: This study supports the presence of 2 variants of eczema: atopic eczema occurring early in childhood and nonatopic eczema with early daycare attendance. It is likely that environmental factors have a different effect on these 2 variants of eczema, and future studies should thus consider eczema as 2 variants in determining the effect of attributable risks.