Genetic Adaptation and Neandertal Admixture Shaped the Immune System of Human Populations.

Humans differ in the outcome that follows exposure to life-threatening pathogens, yet the extent of population differences in immune responses and their genetic and evolutionary determinants remain undefined. Here, we characterized, using RNA sequencing, the transcriptional response of primary monocytes from Africans and Europeans to bacterial and viral stimuli-ligands activating Toll-like receptor pathways (TLR1/2, TLR4, and TLR7/8) and influenza virus-and mapped expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs). We identify numerous cis-eQTLs that contribute to the marked differences in immune responses detected within and between populations and a strong trans-eQTL hotspot at TLR1 that decreases expression of pro-inflammatory genes in Europeans only. We find that immune-responsive regulatory variants are enriched in population-specific signals of natural selection and show that admixture with Neandertals introduced regulatory variants into European genomes, affecting preferentially responses to viral challenges. Together, our study uncovers evolutionarily important determinants of differences in host immune responsiveness between human populations.

Genomic insights into population history and biological adaptation in Oceania.

The Pacific region is of major importance for addressing questions regarding human dispersals, interactions with archaic hominins and natural selection processes1. However, the demographic and adaptive history of Oceanian populations remains largely uncharacterized. Here we report high-coverage genomes of 317 individuals from 20 populations from the Pacific region. We find that the ancestors of Papuan-related ('Near Oceanian') groups underwent a strong bottleneck before the settlement of the region, and separated around 20,000-40,000 years ago. We infer that the East Asian ancestors of Pacific populations may have diverged from Taiwanese Indigenous peoples before the Neolithic expansion, which is thought to have started from Taiwan around 5,000 years ago2-4. Additionally, this dispersal was not followed by an immediate, single admixture event with Near Oceanian populations, but involved recurrent episodes of genetic interactions. Our analyses reveal marked differences in the proportion and nature of Denisovan heritage among Pacific groups, suggesting that independent interbreeding with highly structured archaic populations occurred. Furthermore, whereas introgression of Neanderthal genetic information facilitated the adaptation of modern humans related to multiple phenotypes (for example, metabolism, pigmentation and neuronal development), Denisovan introgression was primarily beneficial for immune-related functions. Finally, we report evidence of selective sweeps and polygenic adaptation associated with pathogen exposure and lipid metabolism in the Pacific region, increasing our understanding of the mechanisms of biological adaptation to island environments.

The genomic signatures of natural selection in admixed human populations.

Admixture has been a pervasive phenomenon in human history, extensively shaping the patterns of population genetic diversity. There is increasing evidence to suggest that admixture can also facilitate genetic adaptation to local environments, i.e., admixed populations acquire beneficial mutations from source populations, a process that we refer to as "adaptive admixture." However, the role of adaptive admixture in human evolution and the power to detect it remain poorly characterized. Here, we use extensive computer simulations to evaluate the power of several neutrality statistics to detect natural selection in the admixed population, assuming multiple admixture scenarios. We show that statistics based on admixture proportions, Fadm and LAD, show high power to detect mutations that are beneficial in the admixed population, whereas other statistics, including iHS and FST, falsely detect neutral mutations that have been selected in the source populations only. By combining Fadm and LAD into a single, powerful statistic, we scanned the genomes of 15 worldwide, admixed populations for signatures of adaptive admixture. We confirm that lactase persistence and resistance to malaria have been under adaptive admixture in West Africans and in Malagasy, North Africans, and South Asians, respectively. Our approach also uncovers other cases of adaptive admixture, including APOL1 in Fulani nomads and PKN2 in East Indonesians, involved in resistance to infection and metabolism, respectively. Collectively, our study provides evidence that adaptive admixture has occurred in human populations whose genetic history is characterized by periods of isolation and spatial expansions resulting in increased gene flow.

Human ancient DNA analyses reveal the high burden of tuberculosis in Europeans over the last 2,000 years.

Tuberculosis (TB), usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria, is the first cause of death from an infectious disease at the worldwide scale, yet the mode and tempo of TB pressure on humans remain unknown. The recent discovery that homozygotes for the P1104A polymorphism of TYK2 are at higher risk to develop clinical forms of TB provided the first evidence of a common, monogenic predisposition to TB, offering a unique opportunity to inform on human co-evolution with a deadly pathogen. Here, we investigate the history of human exposure to TB by determining the evolutionary trajectory of the TYK2 P1104A variant in Europe, where TB is considered to be the deadliest documented infectious disease. Leveraging a large dataset of 1,013 ancient human genomes and using an approximate Bayesian computation approach, we find that the P1104A variant originated in the common ancestors of West Eurasians ∼30,000 years ago. Furthermore, we show that, following large-scale population movements of Anatolian Neolithic farmers and Eurasian steppe herders into Europe, P1104A has markedly fluctuated in frequency over the last 10,000 years of European history, with a dramatic decrease in frequency after the Bronze Age. Our analyses indicate that such a frequency drop is attributable to strong negative selection starting ∼2,000 years ago, with a relative fitness reduction on homozygotes of 20%, among the highest in the human genome. Together, our results provide genetic evidence that TB has imposed a heavy burden on European health over the last two millennia.

Genetic susceptibility to severe childhood asthma and rhinovirus-C maintained by balancing selection in humans for 150 000 years.

Selective pressures imposed by pathogens have varied among human populations throughout their evolution, leading to marked inter-population differences at some genes mediating susceptibility to infectious and immune-related diseases. Here, we investigated the evolutionary history of a common polymorphism resulting in a Y529 versus C529 change in the cadherin related family member 3 (CDHR3) receptor which underlies variable susceptibility to rhinovirus-C infection and is associated with severe childhood asthma. The protective variant is the derived allele and is found at high frequency worldwide (69-95%). We detected genome-wide significant signatures of natural selection consistent with a rapid increase of the haplotypes carrying the allele, suggesting that non-neutral processes have acted on this locus across all human populations. However, the allele has not fixed in any population despite multiple lines of evidence suggesting that the mutation predates human migrations out of Africa. Using an approximate Bayesian computation method, we estimate the age of the mutation while explicitly accounting for past demography and positive or frequency-dependent balancing selection. Our analyses indicate a single emergence of the mutation in anatomically modern humans ~150 000 years ago and indicate that balancing selection has maintained the beneficial allele at high equilibrium frequencies worldwide. Apart from the well-known cases of the MHC and ABO genes, this study provides the first evidence that negative frequency-dependent selection plausibly acted on a human disease susceptibility locus, a form of balancing selection compatible with typical transmission dynamics of communicable respiratory viruses that might exploit CDHR3.

Recent Adaptive Acquisition by African Rainforest Hunter-Gatherers of the Late Pleistocene Sickle-Cell Mutation Suggests Past Differences in Malaria Exposure.

The hemoglobin ßS sickle mutation is a textbook case in which natural selection maintains a deleterious mutation at high frequency in the human population. Homozygous individuals for this mutation develop sickle-cell disease, whereas heterozygotes benefit from higher protection against severe malaria. Because the overdominant ßS allele should be purged almost immediately from the population in the absence of malaria, the study of the evolutionary history of this iconic mutation can provide important information about the history of human exposure to malaria. Here, we sought to increase our understanding of the origins and time depth of the ßS mutation in populations with different lifestyles and ecologies, and we analyzed the diversity of HBB in 479 individuals from 13 populations of African farmers and rainforest hunter-gatherers. Using an approximate Bayesian computation method, we estimated the age of the ßS allele while explicitly accounting for population subdivision, past demography, and balancing selection. When the effects of balancing selection are taken into account, our analyses indicate a single emergence of ßS in the ancestors of present-day agriculturalist populations ∼22,000 years ago. Furthermore, we show that rainforest hunter-gatherers have more recently acquired the ßS mutation from the ancestors of agriculturalists through adaptive gene flow during the last ∼6,000 years. Together, our results provide evidence for a more ancient exposure to malarial pressures among the ancestors of agriculturalists than previously appreciated, and they suggest that rainforest hunter-gatherers have been increasingly exposed to malaria during the last millennia.

Recent Common Origin, Reduced Population Size, and Marked Admixture Have Shaped European Roma Genomes.

The Roma Diaspora-traditionally known as Gypsies-remains among the least explored population migratory events in historical times. It involved the migration of Roma ancestors out-of-India through the plateaus of Western Asia ultimately reaching Europe. The demographic effects of the Diaspora-bottlenecks, endogamy, and gene flow-might have left marked molecular traces in the Roma genomes. Here, we analyze the whole-genome sequence of 46 Roma individuals pertaining to four migrant groups in six European countries. Our analyses revealed a strong, early founder effect followed by a drastic reduction of ∼44% in effective population size. The Roma common ancestors split from the Punjabi population, from Northwest India, some generations before the Diaspora started, <2,000 years ago. The initial bottleneck and subsequent endogamy are revealed by the occurrence of extensive runs of homozygosity and identity-by-descent segments in all Roma populations. Furthermore, we provide evidence of gene flow from Armenian and Anatolian groups in present-day Roma, although the primary contribution to Roma gene pool comes from non-Roma Europeans, which accounts for >50% of their genomes. The linguistic and historical differentiation of Roma in migrant groups is confirmed by the differential proportion, but not a differential source, of European admixture in the Roma groups, which shows a westward cline. In the present study, we found that despite the strong admixture Roma had in their diaspora, the signature of the initial bottleneck and the subsequent endogamy is still present in Roma genomes.

Deciphering the genetic control of gene expression following Mycobacterium leprae antigen stimulation.

Leprosy is a human infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae. A strong host genetic contribution to leprosy susceptibility is well established. However, the modulation of the transcriptional response to infection and the mechanism(s) of disease control are poorly understood. To address this gap in knowledge of leprosy pathogenicity, we conducted a genome-wide search for expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) that are associated with transcript variation before and after stimulation with M. leprae sonicate in whole blood cells. We show that M. leprae antigen stimulation mainly triggered the upregulation of immune related genes and that a substantial proportion of the differential gene expression is genetically controlled. Indeed, using stringent criteria, we identified 318 genes displaying cis-eQTL at an FDR of 0.01, including 66 genes displaying response-eQTL (reQTL), i.e. cis-eQTL that showed significant evidence for interaction with the M. leprae stimulus. Such reQTL correspond to regulatory variations that affect the interaction between human whole blood cells and M. leprae sonicate and, thus, likely between the human host and M. leprae bacilli. We found that reQTL were significantly enriched among binding sites of transcription factors that are activated in response to infection, and that they were enriched among single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with susceptibility to leprosy per se and Type-I Reaction, and seven of them have been targeted by recent positive selection. Our study suggested that natural selection shaped our genomic diversity to face pathogen exposure including M. leprae infection.

Genomic Signatures of Selective Pressures and Introgression from Archaic Hominins at Human Innate Immunity Genes.

Human genes governing innate immunity provide a valuable tool for the study of the selective pressure imposed by microorganisms on host genomes. A comprehensive, genome-wide study of how selective constraints and adaptations have driven the evolution of innate immunity genes is missing. Using full-genome sequence variation from the 1000 Genomes Project, we first show that innate immunity genes have globally evolved under stronger purifying selection than the remainder of protein-coding genes. We identify a gene set under the strongest selective constraints, mutations in which are likely to predispose individuals to life-threatening disease, as illustrated by STAT1 and TRAF3. We then evaluate the occurrence of local adaptation and detect 57 high-scoring signals of positive selection at innate immunity genes, variation in which has been associated with susceptibility to common infectious or autoimmune diseases. Furthermore, we show that most adaptations targeting coding variation have occurred in the last 6,000-13,000 years, the period at which populations shifted from hunting and gathering to farming. Finally, we show that innate immunity genes present higher Neandertal introgression than the remainder of the coding genome. Notably, among the genes presenting the highest Neandertal ancestry, we find the TLR6-TLR1-TLR10 cluster, which also contains functional adaptive variation in Europeans. This study identifies highly constrained genes that fulfill essential, non-redundant functions in host survival and reveals others that are more permissive to change-containing variation acquired from archaic hominins or adaptive variants in specific populations-improving our understanding of the relative biological importance of innate immunity pathways in natural conditions.

Detecting Genomic Signatures of Natural Selection with Principal Component Analysis: Application to the 1000 Genomes Data.

To characterize natural selection, various analytical methods for detecting candidate genomic regions have been developed. We propose to perform genome-wide scans of natural selection using principal component analysis (PCA). We show that the common FST index of genetic differentiation between populations can be viewed as the proportion of variance explained by the principal components. Considering the correlations between genetic variants and each principal component provides a conceptual framework to detect genetic variants involved in local adaptation without any prior definition of populations. To validate the PCA-based approach, we consider the 1000 Genomes data (phase 1) considering 850 individuals coming from Africa, Asia, and Europe. The number of genetic variants is of the order of 36 millions obtained with a low-coverage sequencing depth (3×). The correlations between genetic variation and each principal component provide well-known targets for positive selection (EDAR, SLC24A5, SLC45A2, DARC), and also new candidate genes (APPBPP2, TP1A1, RTTN, KCNMA, MYO5C) and noncoding RNAs. In addition to identifying genes involved in biological adaptation, we identify two biological pathways involved in polygenic adaptation that are related to the innate immune system (beta defensins) and to lipid metabolism (fatty acid omega oxidation). An additional analysis of European data shows that a genome scan based on PCA retrieves classical examples of local adaptation even when there are no well-defined populations. PCA-based statistics, implemented in the PCAdapt R package and the PCAdapt fast open-source software, retrieve well-known signals of human adaptation, which is encouraging for future whole-genome sequencing project, especially when defining populations is difficult.

A genomic portrait of the genetic architecture and regulatory impact of microRNA expression in response to infection.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are critical regulators of gene expression, and their role in a wide variety of biological processes, including host antimicrobial defense, is increasingly well described. Consistent with their diverse functional effects, miRNA expression is highly context dependent and shows marked changes upon cellular activation. However, the genetic control of miRNA expression in response to external stimuli and the impact of such perturbations on miRNA-mediated regulatory networks at the population level remain to be determined. Here we assessed changes in miRNA expression upon Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and mapped expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) in dendritic cells from a panel of healthy individuals. Genome-wide expression profiling revealed that ∼40% of miRNAs are differentially expressed upon infection. We find that the expression of 3% of miRNAs is controlled by proximate genetic factors, which are enriched in a promoter-specific histone modification associated with active transcription. Notably, we identify two infection-specific response eQTLs, for miR-326 and miR-1260, providing an initial assessment of the impact of genotype-environment interactions on miRNA molecular phenotypes. Furthermore, we show that infection coincides with a marked remodeling of the genome-wide relationships between miRNA and mRNA expression levels. This observation, supplemented by experimental data using the model of miR-29a, sheds light on the role of a set of miRNAs in cellular responses to infection. Collectively, this study increases our understanding of the genetic architecture of miRNA expression in response to infection, and highlights the wide-reaching impact of altering miRNA expression on the transcriptional landscape of a cell.

Exploring the occurrence of classic selective sweeps in humans using whole-genome sequencing data sets.

Genome-wide scans for selection have identified multiple regions of the human genome as being targeted by positive selection. However, only a small proportion has been replicated across studies, and the prevalence of positive selection as a mechanism of adaptive change in humans remains controversial. Here we explore the power of two haplotype-based statistics--the integrated haplotype score (iHS) and the Derived Intraallelic Nucleotide Diversity (DIND) test--in the context of next-generation sequencing data, and evaluate their robustness to demography and other selection modes. We show that these statistics are both powerful for the detection of recent positive selection, regardless of population history, and robust to variation in coverage, with DIND being insensitive to very low coverage. We apply these statistics to whole-genome sequence data sets from the 1000 Genomes Project and Complete Genomics. We found that putative targets of selection were highly significantly enriched in genic and nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms, and that DIND was more powerful than iHS in the context of small sample sizes, low-quality genotype calling, or poor coverage. As we excluded genomic confounders and alternative selection models, such as background selection, the observed enrichment attests to the action of recent, strong positive selection. Further support to the adaptive significance of these genomic regions came from their enrichment in functional variants detected by genome-wide association studies, informing the relationship between past selection and current benign and disease-related phenotypic variation. Our results indicate that hard sweeps targeting low-frequency standing variation have played a moderate, albeit significant, role in recent human evolution.

Different selective pressures shape the evolution of Toll-like receptors in human and African great ape populations.

The study of the genetic and selective landscape of immunity genes across primates can provide insight into the existing differences in susceptibility to infection observed between human and non-human primates. Here, we explored how selection has driven the evolution of a key family of innate immunity receptors, the Toll-like receptors (TLRs), in African great ape species. We sequenced the 10 TLRs in various populations of chimpanzees and gorillas, and analysed these data jointly with a human data set. We found that purifying selection has been more pervasive in great apes than in humans. Furthermore, in chimpanzees and gorillas, purifying selection has targeted TLRs irrespectively of whether they are endosomal or cell surface, in contrast to humans where strong selective constraints are restricted to endosomal TLRs. These observations suggest important differences in the relative importance of TLR-mediated pathogen sensing, such as that of recognition of flagellated bacteria by TLR5, between humans and great apes. Lastly, we used a population genetics-phylogenetics method that jointly analyses polymorphism and divergence data to detect fine-scale variation in selection pressures at specific codons within TLR genes. We identified different codons at different TLRs as being under positive selection in each species, highlighting that functional variation at these genes has conferred a selective advantage in immunity to infection to specific primate species. Overall, this study showed that the degree of selection driving the evolution of TLRs has largely differed between human and non-human primates, increasing our knowledge on their respective biological contribution to host defence in the natural setting.

The evolutionary landscape of cytosolic microbial sensors in humans.

Host-pathogen interactions are generally initiated by host recognition of microbial components or danger signals triggered by microbial invasion. This recognition involves germline-encoded microbial sensors or pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs). By studying the way in which natural selection has driven the evolution of these microbial sensors in humans, we can identify genes playing an essential role and distinguish them from other, more redundant genes. We characterized the sequence diversity of the NOD-like receptor family, including the NALP and NOD/IPAF subfamilies, in various populations worldwide and compared this diversity with that of other PRR families, such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs). We found that most NALPs had evolved under strong selective constraints, suggesting that their functions are essential and possibly much broader than previously thought. Conversely, most NOD/IPAF subfamily members were subject to more relaxed selective constraints, suggesting greater redundancy. Furthermore, some NALP genes, including NLRP1, NLRP14, and CIITA, were found to have evolved adaptively. We identified those variants conferring a selective advantage on some human populations as the most likely targets of positive selection. More generally, the strength of selection differed considerably between the major families of microbial sensors. Endosomal TLRs and most NALPs were found to evolve under stronger purifying selection than most NOD/IPAF subfamily members and cell-surface TLRs and RLRs, suggesting some degree of redundancy in the signaling pathways triggered by these molecules. This study provides novel perspectives and experimentally testable hypotheses concerning the relative biological relevance of the various families of microbial sensors in humans.

Human genetic data reveal contrasting demographic patterns between sedentary and nomadic populations that predate the emergence of farming.

Demographic changes are known to leave footprints on genetic polymorphism. Together with the increased availability of large polymorphism data sets, coalescent-based methods allow inferring the past demography of populations from their present-day patterns of genetic diversity. Here, we analyzed both nuclear (20 noncoding regions) and mitochondrial (HVS-I) resequencing data to infer the demographic history of 66 African and Eurasian human populations presenting contrasting lifestyles (nomadic hunter-gatherers, nomadic herders, and sedentary farmers). This allowed us to investigate the relationship between lifestyle and demography and to address the long-standing debate about the chronology of demographic expansions and the Neolithic transition. In Africa, we inferred expansion events for farmers, but constant population sizes or contraction events for hunter-gatherers. In Eurasia, we inferred higher expansion rates for farmers than herders with HVS-I data, except in Central Asia and Korea. Although isolation and admixture processes could have impacted our demographic inferences, these processes alone seem unlikely to explain the contrasted demographic histories inferred in populations with different lifestyles. The small expansion rates or constant population sizes inferred for herders and hunter-gatherers may thus result from constraints linked to nomadism. However, autosomal data revealed contraction events for two sedentary populations in Eurasia, which may be caused by founder effects. Finally, the inferred expansions likely predated the emergence of agriculture and herding. This suggests that human populations could have started to expand in Paleolithic times, and that strong Paleolithic expansions in some populations may have ultimately favored their shift toward agriculture during the Neolithic.

Deep estimation of the intensity and timing of natural selection from ancient genomes.

Leveraging past allele frequencies has proven to be key for identifying the impact of natural selection across time. However, this approach suffers from imprecise estimations of the intensity (s) and timing (T) of selection, particularly when ancient samples are scarce in specific epochs. Here, we aimed to bypass the computation of allele frequencies across arbitrarily defined past epochs and refine the estimations of selection parameters by implementing convolutional neural networks (CNNs) algorithms that directly use ancient genotypes sampled across time. Using computer simulations, we first show that genotype-based CNNs consistently outperform an approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) approach based on past allele frequency trajectories, regardless of the selection model assumed and the number of available ancient genotypes. When applying this method to empirical data from modern and ancient Europeans, we replicated the reported increased number of selection events in post-Neolithic Europe, independently of the continental subregion studied. Furthermore, we substantially refined the ABC-based estimations of s and T for a set of positively and negatively selected variants, including iconic cases of positive selection and experimentally validated disease-risk variants. Our CNN predictions support a history of recent positive and negative selection targeting variants associated with host defence against pathogens, aligning with previous work that highlights the significant impact of infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, in Europe. These findings collectively demonstrate that detecting the footprints of natural selection on ancient genomes is crucial for unravelling the history of severe human diseases.

The selective footprints of viral pressures at the human RIG-I-like receptor family.

The RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs)--RIG-I, IFIH1 (or MDA5) and LGP2--are thought to be key actors in the innate immune system, as they play a major role in sensing RNA viruses in the cytosol of host cells. Despite the increasingly recognized importance of the RLR family in antiviral immunity, no population genetic studies have yet attempted to compare the evolutionary history of its different members in humans. Here, we characterized the levels of naturally occurring genetic variation in the RLRs in a panel of individuals of different ethnic origins, to assess to what extent natural selection has acted on this family of microbial sensors. Our results show that amino acid-altering variation at RIG-I, particularly in the helicase domain, has been under stronger evolutionary constraint than that at IFIH1 and LGP2, reflecting an important role for RIG-I in sensing numerous RNA viruses and/or functional constraints related to the binding of viral substrates. Such evolutionary constraints have been much more relaxed at IFIH1 and LGP2, which appear to have evolved adaptively in specific human populations. Notably, we identified several mutations showing signatures of positive selection, including two non-synonymous polymorphisms in IFIH1 (R460H and R843H) and one in LGP2 (Q425R), suggesting a selective advantage related to the sensing of RNA viruses by IFIH and to the regulatory functions of LGP2. In light of the fact that some of these mutations have been associated with altered risks of developing autoimmune disorders, our study provides an additional example of the evolutionary conflict between infection and autoimmunity.

Genetic adaptation to pathogens and increased risk of inflammatory disorders in post-Neolithic Europe.

Ancient genomics can directly detect human genetic adaptation to environmental cues. However, it remains unclear how pathogens have exerted selective pressures on human genome diversity across different epochs and affected present-day inflammatory disease risk. Here, we use an ancestry-aware approximate Bayesian computation framework to estimate the nature, strength, and time of onset of selection acting on 2,879 ancient and modern European genomes from the last 10,000 years. We found that the bulk of genetic adaptation occurred after the start of the Bronze Age, <4,500 years ago, and was enriched in genes relating to host-pathogen interactions. Furthermore, we detected directional selection acting on specific leukocytic lineages and experimentally demonstrated that the strongest negatively selected candidate variant in immunity genes, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) D283G, is hypomorphic. Finally, our analyses suggest that the risk of inflammatory disorders has increased in post-Neolithic Europeans, possibly because of antagonistic pleiotropy following genetic adaptation to pathogens.

Evolution of the TIR domain-containing adaptors in humans: swinging between constraint and adaptation.

Natural selection is expected to act strongly on immune system genes as hosts adapt to novel, diverse, and coevolving pathogens. Population genetic studies of host defense genes with parallel functions in model organisms have revealed distinct evolutionary histories among the different components-receptors, adaptors, and effectors-of the innate immune system. In humans, however, detailed evolutionary studies have been mainly confined to the receptors and in particular to Toll-like receptors (TLRs). By virtue of a toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain, TLRs activate distinct signaling pathways, which are mediated by the five TIR-containing adaptors: myeloid differentiation factor-88 (MyD88), myeloid differentiation factor-88 adaptor-like protein (MAL), toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor protein inducing interferon (IFN)ß (TRIF), toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor protein inducing IFNß-related adaptor molecule (TRAM), and sterile α- and armadillo motif-containing protein (SARM). Here, we have examined the extent to which natural selection has affected immune adaptors in humans, using as a paradigm the TIR-containing adaptors. To do so, we characterized their levels of naturally occurring genetic variation in various human populations. We found that MyD88 and TRIF have mainly evolved under purifying selection, suggesting that their role in the early stages of signal transduction is essential and nonredundant for host survival. In addition, the adaptors have been targeted by multiple episodes of positive selection, differing in timing and spatial location. MyD88 and SARM display signatures of a selective sweep that has occurred in all humans, whereas for the other three adaptors, we detected signatures of adaptive evolution that are restricted to specific populations. Our study provides evidence that the contemporary diversity of the five TIR-containing adaptors results from the intermingling of different selective events, swinging between constraint and adaptation.

Similarity in recombination rate and linkage disequilibrium at CYP2C and CYP2D cytochrome P450 gene regions among Europeans indicates signs of selection and no advantage of using tagSNPs in population isolates.

OBJECTIVE: Linkage disequilibrium (LD) and recombination rate variations are known to vary considerably between human genome regions and populations mostly because of the combined effects of mutation, recombination, and demographic history. Thus, the pattern of LD is a key issue to disentangle variants associated with complex traits. Here, we aim to describe the haplotype structure and LD variation at the pharmacogenetically relevant cytochrome P450 CYP2C and CYP2D gene regions among European populations. METHODS: To assess the haplotype structure, LD pattern, and recombination rate variations in the clinically significant CYP2C and CYP2D regions, we genotyped 143 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across these two genome regions in a diverse set of 11 European population samples and one sub-Saharan African sample. RESULTS: Our results showed extended patterns of LD and in general a low rate of recombination at these loci, and a low degree of allele differentiation for the two cytochrome P450 regions among Europeans, with the exception of the Sami and the Finns as European outliers. The Sami sample showed reduced haplotype diversity and higher LD for the two cytochrome P450 regions than the other Europeans, a feature that is proposed to enhance the LD mapping of underlying common complex traits. However, recombination hotspots and LD blocks at these two regions showed highly consistent structures across Europeans including Finns and Sami. Moreover, we showed that the CEPH sample has significantly higher tag transferability among Europeans and a more efficient tagging of both the rare CYP2C9 and the common CYP2C19 functional variants than the Sami. Our data set included CYP2C9*3 (rs1057910) and CYP2C19*2 (rs4244285) enzyme activity-altering variants associated in a recent genome-wide study with acenocoumarol-induced and warfarin-induced anticoagulation or to the antiplatelet effect of clopidogrel, respectively. Including these known activity-altering variants, we showed the haplotype variation and high derived allele frequencies of novel recently identified acenocoumarol genome-wide associated SNPs at CYP2C9 (rs4086116) and CYP2C18 (rs12772169, rs1998591, rs2104543, rs1042194) loci in a comprehensive set of 11 European populations. Furthermore, a significant frequency difference of a CYP2C19*2 gene mutation causing variable drug reactions was observed among Europeans. CONCLUSION: The CEPH sample representing the general European population as such in the HapMap project seems to be the optimal population sample for the LD mapping of common complex traits among Europeans. Nevertheless, it is still argued that the unique pattern of LD in the Sami may offer an advantage for further association mapping, especially if multiple rare variants play a role in disease etiology. However, besides the activity-altering CYP2C9*3 (rs1057910) and CYP2C19*2 (rs4244285) variants, the high derived allele frequencies of novel recently identified acenocoumarol genome-wide associated SNPs at CYP2C9 (rs4086116) and CYP2C18 (rs12772169, rs1998591, rs2104543, rs1042194) loci variants indicated that the CYP2C region may have been influenced by selection. Thus, this fine-scale haplotype map of the CYP2C and CYP2D regions may help to choose markers for further association mapping of complex pharmacogenetic traits at these loci.