Single-stranded siRNAs activate RNAi in animals.

The therapeutic utility of siRNAs is limited by the requirement for complex formulations to deliver them to tissues. If potent single-stranded RNAs could be identified, they would provide a simpler path to pharmacological agents. Here, we describe single-stranded siRNAs (ss-siRNAs) that silence gene expression in animals absent lipid formulation. Effective ss-siRNAs were identified by iterative design by determining structure-activity relationships correlating chemically modified single strands and Argonaute 2 (AGO2) activities, potency in cells, nuclease stability, and pharmacokinetics. We find that the passenger strand is not necessary for potent gene silencing. The guide-strand activity requires AGO2, demonstrating action through the RNAi pathway. ss-siRNA action requires a 5' phosphate to achieve activity in vivo, and we developed a metabolically stable 5'-(E)-vinylphosphonate (5'-VP) with conformation and sterioelectronic properties similar to the natural phosphate. Identification of potent ss-siRNAs offers an additional option for RNAi therapeutics and an alternate perspective on RNAi mechanism.

The stability of chicken nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 8 requires both of its transmembrane domains.

Chicken nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 8 (NTPDase8) is a cell surface ectonucleotidase with a large extracellular domain (ECD) containing the active site and is anchored to the membrane by two transmembrane domains (TMDs) at the N- and C-termini. Unlike other cell surface NTPDases that have been characterized, the chicken NTPDase8 is not susceptible to substrate inactivation or agents that cause membrane perturbation. To determine if the stability of the enzyme is inherent in its ECD, the cDNA construct of the soluble chicken NTPDase8 was expressed and the protein purified. The ATPase activity of the purified soluble chicken NTPDase8 was less than 15% of that of the purified full-length enzyme. Strikingly, in contrast to the membrane-bound enzyme, the activity of the soluble chicken NTPDase8 decreased with time in a temperature-dependent manner as a result of inactivation by ATP, ADP, and P(i). Truncated mutants in which the ECD is anchored by a single TMD at either the N- or the C-terminus by the native chicken NTPDase TMDs or a TMD from a different NTPDase, human NTPDase2, also displayed a nonlinear time course of ATP hydrolysis. While removal of the N- or C-terminal TMD affected protein expression differently, the truncated mutants were generally similar to the soluble chicken NTPDase8 with respect to ATP, ADP, and P(i) inactivation. Other biochemical characteristics, e.g., ATPase/ADPase ratios, inhibition by azide, and affinity for ATP, were also altered when one or both of the TMDs were removed from the chicken NTPDase8. These results indicate that (1) both TMDs of the chicken NTPDase8 are required to maintain stability of the enzyme and maximal catalytic activity and (2) the conformations of the ectodomain in the soluble enzyme and the truncated mutants differ from that of the full-length chicken NTPDase8.

Population pharmacokinetic modeling of PF-06439535 (a bevacizumab biosimilar) and reference bevacizumab (Avastin®) in patients with advanced non-squamous non-small cell lung cancer.

PURPOSE: The objectives of this analysis were to characterize the population pharmacokinetics (PK) of PF-06439535 (a bevacizumab biosimilar) and reference bevacizumab (Avastin®) sourced from the European Union (bevacizumab-EU) in patients with advanced non-squamous non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), and to quantify the difference in PK parameters between the two drug products via covariate analysis. METHODS: Pooled PF-06439535 and bevacizumab-EU serum concentration data from a comparative clinical efficacy and safety study (NCT02364999) in patients with NSCLC (N = 719) were analyzed using a non-linear mixed-effects modeling approach. Patients received PF-06439535 plus chemotherapy or bevacizumab-EU plus chemotherapy every 21 days for 4-6 cycles, followed by monotherapy with PF-06439535 or bevacizumab-EU. PF-06439535 or bevacizumab-EU was administered intravenously at a dose of 15 mg/kg. Effects of patient and disease covariates, as well as the drug product (PF-06439535 versus bevacizumab-EU), on PK were investigated. RESULTS: Overall, 8632 serum bevacizumab concentrations from 351 patients in the PF-06439535 group and 354 patients in the bevacizumab-EU group were included in the analysis. A two-compartment model adequately described the combined data. Clearance (CL) and central volume of distribution (V1) estimates were 0.0113 L/h and 2.99 L for a typical 71-kg female patient with NSCLC administered bevacizumab-EU. CL and V1 increased with body weight and were higher in males than females even after accounting for differences in body weight. The 95% confidence intervals for the effect of drug product on CL and V1 encompassed unity. CONCLUSIONS: The population PK of PF-06439535 and bevacizumab-EU were well characterized by a two-compartment model. Covariate analysis did not reveal any appreciable differences between PK parameters for PF-06439535 and bevacizumab-EU in patients with NSCLC. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02364999.

Prevalence of diarrhea viruses in hospitalized children in Hong Kong in 2008.

A total of 209 stool samples were collected from pediatric patients admitted for acute gastroenteritis in a hospital in Hong Kong, during an 8-month period from January to August 2008, and were tested for the presence of rotavirus, norovirus, sapovirus, adenovirus, and astrovirus using a multiplex RT-PCR assay. The most common virus was rotavirus group A (59 of 209, 28%, mainly serotypes G1, G2, G3, and G9), followed by norovirus group II (48 of 209, 23%), adenovirus (7 of 209, 3%, serotypes 2, 3, and 41), and sapovirus (2 of 209, 1%). Interestingly, none of the specimens in this study were positive for astrovirus. One sample was found to have a dual infection with both norovirus group II and adenovirus. The results support the importance of norovirus as a causative agent of diarrhea in children, which may be underestimated by the current routine diagnostic testing.

Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis C genotype 6a from patients with chronic hepatitis C from Hong Kong.

There have been relatively few studies on HCV genotype 6 compared to hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1. In Hong Kong, a city of about 7 million people, most patients infected with HCV are infected with either genotype 1b or 6a. It is known that HCV 6 is of intermediate responsiveness (i.e., between that of HCV genotype 1 and HCV genotypes 2/3) to standard combination interferon/ribavirin therapy. This study examines the molecular epidemiology of chronic HCV 6a infection in Hong Kong during 1999-2005, as well as characterizing some pre- and post-treatment changes in the NS5B gene in a few patients that underwent combination treatment. Partial non-structural protein sequences (NS5B, the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene, positions 397-1,082) were cloned and sequenced in samples from 51 patients that were obtained and archived during 1999-2005. There were three patients with paired pre- and post-treatment samples available for further analysis. Within this NS5B sequence, one significant amino acid mutation was found in each of these patients: Ser272Pro (end-of-treatment response but relapsed), Met312Thr (failed treatment after 3 months due to anemia), and Arg221Lys (end-of-treatment-response but relapsed). This analysis of the pre- and post-treatment NS5B sequences, suggests that whilst post-treatment mutations were identifiable in individual patients, there was no overall characteristic mutation pattern associated with treatment that was common to all treated patients, identified in this small study. Larger studies are required to confirm these findings.

Cloning and characterization of the rat multidrug resistance-associated protein 1.

Multidrug resistance-associated protein 1 (MRP1) was originally shown to confer resistance of human tumor cells to a broad range of natural product anticancer drugs. MRP1 has also been shown to mediate efflux transport of glutathione and glucuronide conjugates of drugs and endogenous substrates. An ortholog of MRP1 in the mouse has been cloned and characterized. Significant functional differences between murine and human MRP1 have been noted. Since drug disposition and pharmacology studies often are conducted in rats, there is a need to clone and characterize the rat ortholog of MRP1. We isolated a rat MRP1 (rMRP1) cDNA from rat brain astrocytes, characterized its coding sequences, and verified the transport activity of the protein expressed in MRP1 cDNA-transfected Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. Our results showed that rMRP1 has a coding sequence of 4599 bp, which predicts a polypeptide of 1533 amino acids with an apparent molecular weight of 190 kd by Western immunoblot analysis. rMRP1-transfected MDCK cells are capable of efflux transport of a fluorescent MRP1 marker - calcein - that is inhibitable by known MRP1 inhibitors, indomethacin, and MK571. Sequence analysis indicates that rMRP1 is more closely related to mouse MRP1 than human MRP1.

Porcine brain microvessel endothelial cells as an in vitro model to predict in vivo blood-brain barrier permeability.

The objective of the study was to establish primary cultured porcine brain microvessel endothelial cells (PBMECs) as an in vitro model to predict the blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability in vivo. The intercellular tight junction formation of PBMECs was examined by electron microscopy and measured by transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER). The mRNA expression of several BBB transporters in PBMECs was determined by reverse transcriptionpolymerase chain reaction analysis. The in vitro permeability of 16 structurally diverse compounds, representing a range of passive diffusion and transporter-mediated mechanisms of brain penetration, was determined in PBMECs. Except for the perfusion flow rate marker diazepam, the BBB permeability of these compounds was determined either in our laboratory or as reported in literature using in situ brain perfusion technique in rats. Results in the present study showed that PBMECs had a high endothelium homogeneity, an mRNA expression of several BBB transporters, and high TEER values. Culturing with rat astrocyte-conditioned medium increased the TEER of PBMECs, but had no effect on the permeability of sucrose, a paracellular diffusion marker. The PBMEC permeability of lipophilic compounds measured under stirred conditions was greatly increased compared with that measured under unstirred conditions. The PBMEC permeability of the 15 test compounds, determined under the optimized study conditions, correlated with the in situ BBB permeability with an r2 of 0.60. Removal of the three system L substrates increased the r2 to 0.89. In conclusion, the present PBMEC model may be used to predict or rank the in vivo BBB permeability of new chemical entities in a drug discovery setting.

How modeling and simulation have enhanced decision making in new drug development.

The idea of model-based drug development championed by Lewis Sheiner, in which pharmacostatistical models of drug efficacy and safety are developed from preclinical and available clinical data, offers a quantitative approach to improving drug development and development decision-making. Examples are presented that support this paradigm. The first example describes a preclinical model of behavioral activity to predict potency and time-course of response in humans and assess the potential for differentiation between compounds. This example illustrates how modeling procedures expounded by Lewis Sheiner provided the means to differentiate potency and the lag time between drug exposure and response and allow for rapid decision making and dose selection. The second example involves planning a Phase 2a dose-ranging and proof of concept trial in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The issue was how to proceed with the study and what criteria to use for a go/no go decision. The combined knowledge of AD disease progression, and preclinical and clinical information about the drug were used to simulate various clinical trial scenarios to identify an efficient and effective Phase 2 study. A design was selected and carried out resulting in a number of important learning experiences as well as extensive financial savings. The motivation for this case in point was the "Learn-Confirm" paradigm described by Lewis Sheiner. The final example describes the use of Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) modeling and simulation to confirm efficacy across doses. In the New Drug Application for gabapentin, data from two adequate and well-controlled clinical trials was submitted to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in support of the approval of the indication for the treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia. The clinical trial data was not replicated for each of the sought dose levels in the drug application presenting a regulatory dilemma. Exposure response analysis submitted in the New Drug Application was applied to confirm the evidence of efficacy across these dose levels. Modeling and simulation analyses showed that the two studies corroborate each other with respect to the pain relief profiles. The use of PK/PD information confirmed evidence of efficacy across the three studied doses, eliminating the need for additional clinical trials and thus supporting the approval of the product. It can be speculated that the work by Lewis Sheiner reflected in the FDA document titled "Innovation or Stagnation: Challenge and Opportunity on the Critical Path to New Medical Products" made this scientific approach to the drug approval process possible.