U.S. Food and Drug Administration Benefit-Risk Assessment of Nilotinib Treatment Discontinuation in Patients with Chronic Phase Chronic Myeloid Leukemia in a Sustained Molecular Remission.

On December 22, 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) updated the product label for nilotinib to include information for providers on how to discontinue this drug in certain patients. With the updated dosing recommendations, select patients with chronic phase myeloid leukemia (CML) taking nilotinib for 3 years or more and whose leukemia has responded with sustained molecular remission (MR4.5, BCR-ABL transcripts of ≤0.0032%) as determined by a FDA-approved test may be eligible to discontinue nilotinib. The updated dosing regimen was based on the efficacy results from two trials that measured how long patients could stop taking nilotinib without the leukemia returning (treatment-free remission). Trial results demonstrated that, among selected patients who received nilotinib as first-line therapy or after transition from imatinib, approximately 50% continued to be in remission at 96 weeks after stopping therapy. Relapses continued to occur throughout the study, indicating that long-term monitoring is needed for safety and disease monitoring. Discontinuation of treatment was associated with an increased risk of low grade musculoskeletal adverse events, some of which were prolonged. Overall, the results support the approval of updates to the dosing recommendations with regard to treatment discontinuation in selected patients who have received nilotinib for at least 3 years, are in a sustained molecular remission, and who can undergo appropriate monitoring. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: The updated dosing information provides eligibility criteria for treatment discontinuation, strict monitoring criteria after nilotinib discontinuation, and guidance for treatment reinitiation in eligible patients with chronic phase myeloid leukemia. About half of appropriately selected patients remained in remission 96 weeks after treatment discontinuation. Patients may experience musculoskeletal pain on withdrawal of treatment, incidence of which appears to decrease over time; however, some patients may have long lasting events. The decision to withdraw or continue treatment with nilotinib should be based on clinical condition and patient preferences.

FDA Approval Summary: Pembrolizumab for Recurrent Locally Advanced or Metastatic Gastric or Gastroesophageal Junction Adenocarcinoma Expressing PD-L1.

On September 22, 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted accelerated approval for pembrolizumab (Keytruda, Merck & Co., Inc., Whitehouse Station, NJ) for the treatment of patients with recurrent, locally advanced or metastatic, gastric or gastroesophageal junction (GEJ) adenocarcinoma with disease progression on or after two or more systemic therapies, including fluoropyrimidine- and platinum-containing chemotherapy and, if appropriate, HER2/neu-targeted therapy, and whose tumors express programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), as determined by an FDA-approved test. Approval was based on demonstration of durable overall response rate (ORR) in a multicenter, open-label, multicohort trial (KEYNOTE-059/Cohort 1) that enrolled 259 patients with locally advanced or metastatic gastric or GEJ adenocarcinoma. Among the 55% (n = 143) of patients whose tumors expressed PD-L1 based on a combined positive score ≥1 and either were microsatellite stable or had undetermined microsatellite instability or mismatch repair status, the confirmed ORR as determined by blinded independent central review was 13.3% (95% CI, 8.2-20.0); 1.4% had complete responses. Response durations ranged from 2.8+ to 19.4+ months; 11 patients (58%) had response durations of 6 months or longer, and 5 patients (26%) had response durations of 12 months or longer. The most common (≥20%) adverse reactions of pembrolizumab observed in KEYNOTE-059/Cohort 1 were fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, and constipation. The most frequent (≥2%) serious adverse drug reactions were pleural effusion, pneumonia, dyspnea, pulmonary embolism, and pneumonitis. Pembrolizumab was approved concurrently with the PD-L1 immunohistochemistry 22C3 pharmDx test (Dako, Agilent, Santa Clara, CA) for selection of patients with gastric cancer for treatment with pembrolizumab based on PD-L1 tumor expression. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: This report presents key information on the basis for Food and Drug Administration approval of pembrolizumab for the treatment of patients with locally advanced or metastatic gastric or GEJ adenocarcinoma whose tumors express PD-L1. The report discusses the basis for limiting the indication to patients with PD-L1-expressing tumors and the basis for recommending that PD-L1 status be assessed using a fresh tumor specimen if PD-L1 expression is not detected in an archival gastric or GEJ cancer specimen.

FDA Approval Summary: Atezolizumab or Pembrolizumab for the Treatment of Patients with Advanced Urothelial Carcinoma Ineligible for Cisplatin-Containing Chemotherapy.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted accelerated approval to atezolizumab and pembrolizumab in April and May 2017, respectively, for the treatment of patients with locally advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma who are not eligible for cisplatin-containing chemotherapy. These approvals were based on efficacy and safety data demonstrated in the two single-arm trials, IMvigor210 (atezolizumab) and KEYNOTE-052 (pembrolizumab). The primary endpoint, confirmed objective response rate, was 23.5% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 16.2%-32.2%) in patients receiving atezolizumab and 28.6% (95% CI: 24.1%-33.5%) in patients receiving pembrolizumab. The median duration of response was not reached in either study and responses were seen regardless of PD-L1 status. The safety profiles of both drugs were generally consistent with approved agents targeting PD-1/PD-L1. Two ongoing trials (IMvigor130 and KEYNOTE-361) are verifying benefit of these drugs. Based on concerning preliminary reports from these trials, FDA revised the indications for both agents in cisplatin-ineligible patients. Both drugs are now indicated for patients not eligible for any platinum-containing chemotherapy or not eligible for cisplatin-containing chemotherapy and whose tumors/infiltrating immune cells express a high level of PD-L1. The indications for atezolizumab and pembrolizumab in patients who have received prior platinum-based therapy have not been changed. This article summarizes the FDA thought process and data supporting the accelerated approval of both agents and the subsequent revision of the indications. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: The accelerated approvals of atezolizumab and pembrolizumab for cisplatin-ineligible patients with advanced urothelial carcinoma represent the first approved therapies for this patient population. These approvals were based on single-arm trials demonstrating reasonable objective response rates and favorable durations of response with an acceptable toxicity profile compared with available non-cisplatin-containing chemotherapy regimens. However, based on concerning preliminary reports from two ongoing phase III trials, the FDA revised the indication for both agents in cisplatin-ineligible patients. Both are now indicated either for patients not eligible for any platinum-containing chemotherapy or not eligible for cisplatin-containing chemotherapy and whose tumors have high expression of PD-L1.

Cancer drugs approved for use in children: Impact of legislative initiatives and future opportunities.

It is well appreciated that the number of anticancer drugs approved for use in children is a fraction of the number approved for use in cancers that occur in adults. We address this fact by summarizing the relevant U.S. legislation that provides the framework for the evaluation and approval of drugs used to treat children with cancer. In total, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved 38 new drug applications for pediatric oncology indications, 12 of which were new molecular entities. FDA continues to collaborate with multistakeholders regarding the development of products intended for pediatric cancer and encourages the submission of marketing applications.

FDA Supplemental Approval: Blinatumomab for Treatment of Relapsed and Refractory Precursor B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia.

On July 11, 2017, the Food and Drug Administration granted approval for blinatumomab for the treatment of relapsed or refractory (R/R) precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Blinatumomab is a bispecific CD19-directed CD3 T-cell engager. The basis for the approval included results from two clinical trials, TOWER and ALCANTARA. TOWER, a randomized trial comparing overall survival in patients with Philadelphia chromosome (Ph)-negative R/R ALL receiving blinatumomab versus standard-of-care (SOC) chemotherapy, demonstrated a hazard ratio of 0.71 favoring blinatumomab (p = .012; median survival, 7.7 months with blinatumomab and 4.0 months with SOC chemotherapy). Complete remission (CR) rates were 34% for patients receiving blinatumomab and 16% for those receiving SOC. Adverse events were consistent with those observed in prior trials, with cytokine release syndrome and some neurologic events, including tremor, encephalopathy, peripheral neuropathy, and depression, observed more frequently in the blinatumomab arm, whereas neutropenia and infection were less common among patients receiving blinatumomab. Depression emerged as a rare but potentially severe neurologic event associated with blinatumomab. In ALCANTARA, a single-arm trial of blinatumomab in patients with Ph-positive R/R ALL, the CR rate was 31%, and adverse events were similar to those observed previously in Ph-negative R/R ALL. These results support conversion from accelerated to regular approval of blinatumomab for R/R ALL and broadening of the intended population to include both Ph-positive and Ph-negative precursor B-cell R/R ALL. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: In TOWER, a randomized trial in patients with relapsed or refractory Philadelphia chromosome (Ph)-negative precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), treatment with blinatumomab showed superiority over conventional chemotherapy for complete remission (CR) rate (34% vs. 16%) and survival (3.7-month improvement in median; hazard ratio, 0.71). In ALCANTARA, a single-arm trial of blinatumomab for treatment of relapsed or refractory Ph-positive precursor B-cell ALL, the CR rate was 31%. Blinatumomab is now approved for treatment of relapsed or refractory precursor B-cell ALL that is Ph positive or Ph negative.

FDA Approval Summary: Lenalidomide as Maintenance Therapy After Autologous Stem Cell Transplant in Newly Diagnosed Multiple Myeloma.

On February 22, 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted approval for the use of lenalidomide as maintenance therapy after autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (auto-HSCT) for patients with multiple myeloma. The approval was based on evidence from two randomized, blinded trials of maintenance lenalidomide versus placebo in patients with myeloma who had undergone auto-HSCT along with a third trial of lenalidomide versus no therapy. Each of the trials demonstrated superior progression-free survival for the patients treated with lenalidomide. The effect on overall survival was mixed, with one trial showing longer overall survival and another showing no effect. Subgroup analysis suggested better results for patients with International Staging System stage I or II disease compared with stage III disease. Safety evaluation did not reveal any new safety concerns. More second primary malignancies were observed in the lenalidomide arm compared with the placebo arm. The FDA concluded that lenalidomide maintenance showed a favorable benefit-to-risk ratio when used as maintenance therapy after auto-HSCT. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Prior to this approval, there were no U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved maintenance therapies for patients with multiple myeloma (MM) who have undergone autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (auto-HSCT). Maintenance therapy with lenalidomide after auto-HSCT in patients with MM demonstrated an approximately 15- to 18-month advantage in progression-free survival compared with placebo at the time of the primary analysis. Patients treated with lenalidomide also appeared to have a survival advantage compared with patients treated with placebo. Because of the high rate of relapse of MM in patients following auto-HSCT and because MM is a serious and often fatal disease, these results appear to be clinically meaningful.

FDA Approval Summary: Midostaurin for the Treatment of Advanced Systemic Mastocytosis.

In April 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration granted regular approval to midostaurin for the treatment of adult patients with aggressive systemic mastocytosis (ASM), systemic mastocytosis with associated hematological neoplasm (SM-AHN), or mast cell leukemia (MCL). Approval was based on results from CPKC412D2201, a single-arm trial of midostaurin (100 mg orally twice daily) in previously treated or untreated patients. For the patients with ASM and SM-AHN, efficacy was established on the basis of confirmed complete remission (CR) plus incomplete remission (ICR) by modified Valent criteria with six cycles of midostaurin. There were no CRs reported; ICR was achieved by 6 of 16 patients (38%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 15%-65%) with ASM and by 9 of 57 patients (16%; 95% CI: 7%-28%) with SM-AHN. Within the follow-up period, the median duration of response was not reached for the patients with ASM (range, 12.1+ to 36.8+ months) or with SM-AHN (range, 6.6+ to 52.1+ months). For the patients with MCL, efficacy was established on the basis of confirmed CR using modified 2013 International Working Group-Myeloproliferative Neoplasms Research and Treatment-European Competence Network on Mastocytosis criteria. Of 21 patients with MCL, 1 (5%) achieved a CR. Of 142 patients with SM evaluated for safety, 56% had dose modifications for toxicity, and 21% discontinued treatment due to a toxicity. Over 50% reported nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea, and ≥30% reported edema, musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, abdominal pain, or upper respiratory tract infection. New or worsening grade ≥3 lymphopenia, anemia, thrombocytopenia, or neutropenia developed in ≥20%. Although midostaurin is an active drug for treatment of advanced SM, it is not clear that the optimal dose has been identified. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Midostaurin is the only U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved therapy for patients with systemic mastocytosis with associated hematological neoplasm and mast cell leukemia and is the only therapy approved for patients with aggressive systemic mastocytosis regardless of KIT D816V mutation status. Based on response rate and duration, midostaurin has meaningful clinical activity in these rare, life-threatening diseases.

FDA Approval Summary: Vemurafenib for the Treatment of Patients with Erdheim-Chester Disease with the BRAFV600 Mutation.

On November 6, 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted regular approval to vemurafenib for the treatment of adult patients with Erdheim-Chester disease (ECD) with BRAFV600 mutation. ECD is a type of histiocytosis, a rare disorder characterized by an abnormal accumulation and behavior of cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system, which includes antigen-processing cells, dendritic cells, monocytes, or macrophages. Recently published data confirm a frequency of 54% of BRAFV600E mutations in patients with ECD.Approval was based on a cohort of 22 patients who received 960 mg of vemurafenib twice daily within the VE Basket Trial (MO28072), a single-arm, multicenter, multiple cohort study. Patients in the ECD cohort had histologically confirmed ECD with BRAFV600 mutations that were refractory to standard therapy. The ECD cohort achieved an overall response rate of 54.5% (95% confidence interval: 32.2-75.6), with a complete response rate of 4.5%. With a median duration of follow-up of 26.6 months, the median duration of response has not been reached. The most frequently reported adverse reactions (>50%) in the ECD cohort were arthralgia, rash maculo-papular, alopecia, fatigue, electrocardiogram QT interval prolonged, and skin papilloma. The median treatment duration for ECD patients in this study was 14.2 months. This article describes the FDA review of the vemurafenib efficacy supplement for patients with ECD with BRAFV600 mutations. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Vemurafenib, an oral monotherapy targeting a mutation in BRAF, is the first U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval for the treatment of Erdheim-Chester disease (ECD). ECD is an extremely rare hematopoietic neoplasm that represents clonal proliferation of myeloid progenitor cells. ECD may involve bone and one or more organ systems, primarily affecting adults in their 5th and 7th decades of life, with a slight male predominance. This approval provides an effective and reasonably safe therapy for patients with a serious and life-threatening condition for which no approved therapy exists.

FDA Approval Summary: Dabrafenib and Trametinib for the Treatment of Metastatic Non-Small Cell Lung Cancers Harboring BRAF V600E Mutations.

On June 22, 2017, the Food and Drug Administration expanded indications for dabrafenib and trametinib to include treatment of patients with metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) harboring BRAF V600E mutations. Approval was based on results from an international, multicenter, multicohort, noncomparative, open-label trial, study BRF113928, which sequentially enrolled 93 patients who had received previous systemic treatment for advanced NSCLC (Cohort B, n = 57) or were treatment-naïve (Cohort C, n = 36). All patients received dabrafenib 150 mg orally twice daily and trametinib 2 mg orally once daily. In Cohort B, overall response rate (ORR) was 63% (95% confidence interval [CI] 49%-76%) with response durations ≥6 months in 64% of responders. In Cohort C, ORR was 61% (95% CI 44%-77%) with response durations ≥6 months in 59% of responders. Results were evaluated in the context of the Intergroupe Francophone de Cancérologie Thoracique registry and a chart review of U.S. electronic health records at two academic sites, characterizing treatment outcomes data for patients with metastatic NSCLC with or without BRAF V600E mutations. The treatment effect of dabrafenib 150 mg twice daily was evaluated in 78 patients with previously treated BRAF mutant NSCLC, yielding an ORR of 27% (95% CI 18%-38%), establishing that dabrafenib alone is active, but that the addition of trametinib is necessary to achieve an ORR of >40%. The most common adverse reactions (≥20%) were pyrexia, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dry skin, decreased appetite, edema, rash, chills, hemorrhage, cough, and dyspnea. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: The approvals of dabrafenib and trametinib, administered concurrently, provide a new regimen for the treatment of a rare subset of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and demonstrate how drugs active for treatment of BRAF-mutant tumors in one setting predict efficacy and can provide supportive evidence for approval in another setting. The FDA also approved the first next-generation sequencing oncology panel test for simultaneous assessment of multiple actionable mutations, which will facilitate selection of optimal, personalized therapy. The test was shown to accurately and reliably select patients with NSCLC with the BRAF V600E mutation for whom treatment with dabrafenib and trametinib is the optimal treatment.

Benefit-Risk Summary of Regorafenib for the Treatment of Patients with Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma That Has Progressed on Sorafenib.

On April 27, 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved regorafenib for the treatment of patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) who had previously been treated with sorafenib. Approval was based on the results of a single, randomized, placebo-controlled trial (RESORCE) that demonstrated an improvement in overall survival (OS). Patients were randomly allocated to receive regorafenib160 mg orally once daily or matching placebo for the first 21 days of each 28-day cycle. The trial demonstrated a significant improvement in OS (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.63; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.50-0.79, p < .0001) with an estimated median OS of 10.6 months in the regorafenib arm and 7.8 months in the placebo arm. A statistically significant improvement in progression-free survival (PFS) based on modified RECIST for HCC [Semin Liver Dis 2010;30:52-60] (HR = 0.46; 95% CI, 0.37-0.56, p < .0001) was also demonstrated; the estimated median PFS was 3.1 and 1.5 months in the regorafenib and placebo arms, respectively. The overall response rate, based on modified RECIST for HCC, was 11% in the regorafenib arm and 4% in the placebo arm. The toxicity profile was consistent with that observed in other indications; the most clinically significant adverse reactions were palmar-plantar erythrodysesthesia, diarrhea, and hypertension. Based on the improvement in survival and acceptable toxicity, a favorable benefit-to-risk evaluation led to approval for treatment of patients with advanced HCC. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Regorafenib is the first drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma that has progressed on sorafenib and is expected to become a standard of care for these patients.

Regulatory considerations on endpoints in ovarian cancer drug development.

Ovarian cancer remains a disease entity that is responsible for considerable morbidity and mortality among women worldwide. Modern drug research pipelines and accelerated drug development timelines applied to other disease entities have begun to make an impact on treatment options for patients with advanced ovarian cancer, as exemplified by the recent accelerated approval of 2 agents for this disease as the forerunners of a growing number of registrational trials. Regulatory flexibility for this serious and life-threatening condition spurs the consideration of intermediate endpoints for regulatory trial design, including potential applications in the development of newer therapeutic classes such as targeted therapies and immunotherapies for patients with advanced ovarian cancer. Cancer 2017;123:2604-8. © 2017 American Cancer Society.

FDA Approval Summary: Pembrolizumab for Treatment of Metastatic Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: First-Line Therapy and Beyond.

On October 24, 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved pembrolizumab (Keytruda; Merck & Co., Inc., https://www.merck.com) for treatment of patients with metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (mNSCLC) whose tumors express programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) as determined by an FDA-approved test, as follows: (a) first-line treatment of patients with mNSCLC whose tumors have high PD-L1 expression (tumor proportion score [TPS] ≥50%), with no epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) genomic tumor aberrations, and (b) treatment of patients with mNSCLC whose tumors express PD-L1 (TPS ≥1%), with disease progression on or after platinum-containing chemotherapy. Patients with EGFR or ALK genomic tumor aberrations should have disease progression on FDA-approved therapy for these aberrations prior to receiving pembrolizumab.Approval was based on two randomized, open-label, active-controlled trials demonstrating statistically significant improvements in progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) for patients randomized to pembrolizumab compared with chemotherapy. In KEYNOTE-024, patients with previously untreated mNSCLC who received pembrolizumab (200 mg intravenously [IV] every 3 weeks) had a statistically significant improvement in OS (hazard ratio [HR] 0.60; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.41-0.89; p = .005), and significant improvement in PFS (HR 0.50; 95% CI: 0.37-0.68; p < .001). In KEYNOTE-010, patients with disease progression on or after platinum-containing chemotherapy received pembrolizumab IV 2 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg, or docetaxel 75 mg/m2 every 3 weeks. The HR and p value for OS was 0.71 (95% CI: 0.58-0.88), p < .001 comparing pembrolizumab 2 mg/kg with chemotherapy and the HR and p value for OS was 0.61 (95% CI: 0.49-0.75), p < .001 comparing pembrolizumab 10 mg/kg with chemotherapy. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: This is the first U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval of a checkpoint inhibitor for first-line treatment of lung cancer. This approval expands the pembrolizumab indication in second-line treatment of lung cancer to include all patients with programmed death-ligand 1-expressing non-small cell lung cancer.

FDA Approval Summary: Daratumumab for Treatment of Multiple Myeloma After One Prior Therapy.

On November 21, 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration granted regular approval to daratumumab in combination with lenalidomide and dexamethasone, or bortezomib and dexamethasone, for the treatment of patients with multiple myeloma who have received at least one prior therapy. Approval was based on two randomized, open-label trials in which daratumumab was added to these backbone therapies. The MMY3003 trial demonstrated substantial improvement in progression-free survival (PFS) when daratumumab was added to lenalidomide and dexamethasone compared with lenalidomide and dexamethasone alone. The estimated median PFS had not been reached in the daratumumab arm and was 18.4 months in the control arm (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.37; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.27-0.52; p < .0001), representing a 63% reduction in the risk of disease progression or death. Similar results were observed in the MMY3004 trial comparing the combination of daratumumab, bortezomib, and dexamethasone with bortezomib and dexamethasone. The estimated median PFS was not reached in the daratumumab arm and was 7.2 months in the control arm (HR = 0.39; 95% CI: 0.28-0.53; p < .0001), representing a 61% reduction in the risk of disease progression or death. The most frequently reported adverse reactions (greater than or equal to 20%) in MMY3003 were infusion reactions, diarrhea, nausea, fatigue, pyrexia, upper respiratory tract infection, muscle spasm, cough, and dyspnea. The most frequently reported adverse reactions (greater than or equal to 20%) in MMY3004 were infusion reactions, diarrhea, peripheral edema, upper respiratory tract infection, and peripheral sensory neuropathy. Neutropenia and thrombocytopenia have been added to the Warnings and Precautions of the drug label. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Daratumumab, the first monoclonal antibody targeted against CD38, received U.S. Food and Drug Administration accelerated approval in 2015 based on data from single-agent, single-arm trials that provided response rate information. Results of the MMY3003 and MMY3004 trials established that daratumumab can be combined synergistically with some of the most highly active agents used to treat multiple myeloma, leading to daratumumab's regular approval in 2016. Daratumumab added to lenalidomide and dexamethasone, or bortezomib and dexamethasone, provides a substantial improvement in progression-free survival in previously treated patients with multiple myeloma. These combinations will likely improve the survival outlook for patients with multiple myeloma.

FDA Approval Summary: Pembrolizumab for the Treatment of Recurrent or Metastatic Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma with Disease Progression on or After Platinum-Containing Chemotherapy.

On August 5, 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration granted accelerated approval to pembrolizumab (KEYTRUDA injection, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Kenilworth, NJ) for treatment of patients with recurrent or metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) with disease progression on or after platinum-containing chemotherapy. Approval was based on the objective response rate (ORR) and duration of response (DoR) in a cohort of patients in a nonrandomized multi-cohort trial (KEYNOTE-012) that included 174 patients with recurrent or metastatic HNSCC who had disease progression on or after platinum-containing chemotherapy. Patients received either intravenous pembrolizumab 10 mg/kg every 2 weeks or 200 mg every 3 weeks. ORR was determined by independent review according to Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors 1.1. ORR was 16% (95% confidence interval 11, 22) with a complete response rate of 5%. DoR ranged from 2.4+ months to 27.7+ months. Twenty-three of 28 responding patients (82%) had response durations of ≥6 months. Safety was evaluated in 192 patients with HNSCC receiving at least one dose of pembrolizumab. Frequent (≥2%) serious adverse reactions were pneumonia, dyspnea, confusional state, vomiting, pleural effusion, and respiratory failure. Clinically significant immune-mediated adverse reactions included pneumonitis, colitis, hepatitis, adrenal insufficiency, diabetes mellitus, skin toxicity, myositis, and thyroid disorders. The benefit-risk profile of pembrolizumab was considered acceptable in this patient population. As a condition of accelerated approval, Merck is required to conduct a confirmatory trial; this trial, KEYNOTE-040, is ongoing. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: This accelerated approval expands the U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved indications for pembrolizumab, providing health care providers with new information regarding pembrolizumab for the treatment of patients with recurrent or metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) with disease progression on or after platinum-containing chemotherapy. Pembrolizumab is the first drug to receive approval for treatment of patients with HNSCC since cetuximab was approved for this indication in 2006.

NCCN Working Group report: designing clinical trials in the era of multiple biomarkers and targeted therapies.

Defining treatment-susceptible or -resistant populations of patients with cancer through the use of genetically defined biomarkers has revolutionized cancer care in recent years for some disease/patient groups. Research continues to show that histologically defined diseases are diverse in their expression of unique mutations or other genetic alterations, however, which presents opportunities for the development of personalized cancer treatments, but increased difficulty in testing these therapies, because potential patient populations are divided into ever smaller numbers. To address some of the growing challenges in biomarker development and clinical trial design, NCCN assembled a group of experts across specialties and solid tumor disease types to begin to define the problems and to consider alternate ways of designing clinical trials in the era of multiple biomarkers and targeted therapies. Results from that discussion are presented, focusing on issues of clinical trial design from the perspective of statisticians, clinical researchers, regulators, pathologists, and information developers.

The role of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration review process: clinical trial endpoints in oncology.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration grants marketing approval for drug products based on a comprehensive review of safety and efficacy data. The clinical trial endpoints that have been used to support approval in the oncology setting have evolved over the last 30 years commensurate with an improved understanding of the natural history of cancers and the mechanisms of action of drugs. Overall survival is the gold standard for a registration trial designed to gain marketing approval; however, additional endpoints have been used in the approval of oncology drugs. Advantages of specific endpoints are discussed, including the accuracy of an endpoint's measurement and its relation to clinical benefit. Surrogate endpoints may be acceptable for "accelerated" approval, with a sponsor commitment to provide evidence of clinical benefit in a subsequent trial.

FDA Approval Summary: Axicabtagene Ciloleucel for Relapsed or Refractory Large B-cell Lymphoma.

In October 2017, the FDA granted regular approval to axicabtagene ciloleucel, a CD19-directed chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy, for treatment of adult patients with relapsed or refractory large B-cell lymphoma after two or more lines of systemic therapy. Efficacy was based on complete remission (CR) rate and duration of response (DOR) in 101 adult patients with relapsed or refractory large B-cell lymphoma (median 3 prior systemic regimens) treated on a single-arm trial. Patients received a single infusion of axicabtagene ciloleucel, preceded by lymphodepleting chemotherapy with cyclophosphamide and fludarabine. The objective response rate per independent review committee was 72% [95% confidence interval (CI), 62-81], with a CR rate of 51% (95% CI, 41-62). With a median follow-up of 7.9 months, the median DOR was not reached in patients achieving CR (95% CI, 8.1 months; not estimable, NE), whereas patients with partial remission had an estimated median DOR of 2.1 months (95% CI, 1.3-5.3). Among 108 patients evaluated for safety, serious adverse reactions occurred in 52%. Cytokine release syndrome and neurologic toxicities occurred in 94% and 87% of patients, respectively, leading to implementation of a risk evaluation and mitigation strategy.

Complexity of Delivering Precision Medicine: Opportunities and Challenges.

Precision medicine has emerged as a tool to match patients with the appropriate treatment based on the precise molecular features of an individual patient's tumor. Although examples of targeted therapies exist resulting in dramatic improvements in patient outcomes, comprehensive genomic profiling of tumors has also demonstrated the incredible complexity of molecular alterations in tissue and blood. These sequencing methods provide opportunities to study the landscape of tumors at baseline and serially in response to treatment. These tools also serve as important biomarkers to detect resistance to treatment and determine higher likelihood of responding to particular treatments, such as immune checkpoint blockade. Federally funded and publicly available data repositories have emerged as mechanisms for data sharing. In addition, novel clinical trials are emerging to develop new ways of incorporating molecular matched therapy into clinical trials. Various challenges to delivery of precision oncology include understanding the complexity of advanced tumors based on evolving "omics" and treatment resistance. For physicians, determining when and how to incorporate genetic and molecular tools into clinic in a cost-effective manner is critical. Finally, we discuss the importance of well-designed prospective clinical trials, biomarkers such as liquid biopsies, the use of multidisciplinary tumor boards, and data sharing as evidence-based medicine tools to optimally study and deliver precision oncology to our patients.