Volumetric muscle composition analysis in sporadic inclusion body myositis using fat-referenced magnetic resonance imaging: Disease pattern, repeatability, and natural progression.

INTRODUCTION/AIMS: Fat-referenced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has emerged as a promising volumetric technique for measuring muscular volume and fat in neuromuscular disorders, but the experience in inflammatory myopathies remains limited. Therefore, this work aimed at describing how sporadic inclusion body myositis (sIBM) manifests on standardized volumetric fat-referenced MRI muscle measurements, including within-scanner repeatability, natural progression rate, and relationship to clinical parameters. METHODS: Ten sIBM patients underwent whole-leg Dixon MRI at baseline (test-retest) and after 12 months. The lean muscle volume (LMV), muscle fat fraction (MFF), and muscle fat infiltration (MFI) of the quadriceps, hamstrings, adductors, medial gastrocnemius, and tibialis anterior were computed. Clinical assessments of IBM Functional Rating Scale (IBMFRS) and knee extension strength were also performed. The baseline test-retest MRI measurements were used to estimate the within-subject standard deviation (sw). 12-month changes were derived for all parameters. RESULTS: The MRI measurements showed high repeatability in all muscles; sw ranged from 2.7 to 18.0 mL for LMV, 0.7-1.3 percentage points (pp) for MFF, and 0.2-0.7 pp for MFI. Over 12 months, average LMV decreased by 7.4% while MFF and MFI increased by 3.8 pp and 1.8 pp, respectively. Mean IBMFRS decreased by 2.4 and mean knee extension strength decreased by 32.8 N. DISCUSSION: The MRI measurements showed high repeatability and 12-month changes consistent with muscle atrophy and fat replacement as well as a decrease in both muscle strength and IBMFRS. Our findings suggest that fat-referenced MRI measurements are suitable for assessing disease progression and treatment response in inflammatory myopathies.

RNA-seq analysis, targeted long-read sequencing and in silico prediction to unravel pathogenic intronic events and complicated splicing abnormalities in dystrophinopathy.

Dystrophinopathy is caused by alterations in DMD. Approximately 1% of patients remain genetically undiagnosed, because intronic variations are not detected by standard methods. Here, we combined laboratory and in silico analyses to identify disease-causing genomic variants in genetically undiagnosed patients and determine the regulatory mechanisms underlying abnormal DMD transcript generation. DMD transcripts from 20 genetically undiagnosed dystrophinopathy patients in whom no exon variants were identified, despite dystrophin deficiency on muscle biopsy, were analyzed by transcriptome sequencing. Genome sequencing captured intronic variants and their effects were interpreted using in silico tools. Targeted long-read sequencing was applied in cases with suspected structural genomic abnormalities. Abnormal DMD transcripts were detected in 19 of 20 cases; Exonization of intronic sequences in 15 cases, exon skipping in one case, aberrantly spliced and polyadenylated transcripts in two cases and transcription termination in one case. Intronic single nucleotide variants, chromosomal rearrangements and nucleotide repeat expansion were identified in DMD gene as pathogenic causes of transcript alteration. Our combined analysis approach successfully identified pathogenic events. Detection of diseasing-causing mechanisms in DMD transcripts could inform the therapeutic options for patients with dystrophinopathy.

Factors influencing the decision to introduce alternative nutrition in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

INTRODUCTION/AIMS: Nutritional management of adults with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an important clinical issue. However, it is not clear which dysphagia-related factors should prompt introduction of alternative nutrition (AN). We aimed to determine which patients with DMD were introduced to AN. METHODS: This retrospective study included 56 patients with DMD (median age, 23.5 years). They were divided into patients able to continue oral feeding (OF) and those introduced to AN. Body weight, frequency of ventilator use, daily meals, history of steroid treatment, results of videofluoroscopic examination of swallowing (VF), and awareness of dysphagia were evaluated. RESULTS: Of 56 patients, 19 were in the AN group. After AN introduction, 93% of the patients continued oral intake. The proportion of patients who consumed chopped and liquid diets was higher, and body weight was lower, in the AN than in the OF group. There were no significant differences in age, upper limb function of feeding, frequency of ventilator use, or history of steroid therapy between the two groups. The frequencies of aspiration and residue in the pyriform sinus in VF were higher in the AN group than in the OF group. Decision-tree analysis showed that food form and subjective difficulty swallowing solid foods were the most important factors affecting the decision-making for AN. DISCUSSION: Patients with DMD who had difficulty eating solid foods were started on AN because they were unable to maintain their weight. These findings provide information for future longitudinal studies to assess the value of AN.

Simultaneous measurement of the size and methylation of chromosome 4qA-D4Z4 repeats in facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy by long-read sequencing.

BACKGROUND: Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) is an autosomal dominant muscular disorder characterized by asymmetric muscle wasting and weakness. FSHD can be subdivided into two types: FSHD1, caused by contraction of the D4Z4 repeat on chromosome 4q35, and FSHD2, caused by mild contraction of the D4Z4 repeat plus aberrant hypomethylation mediated by genetic variants in SMCHD1, DNMT3B, or LRIF1. Genetic diagnosis of FSHD is challenging because of the complex procedures required. METHODS: We applied Nanopore CRISPR/Cas9-targeted resequencing for the diagnosis of FSHD by simultaneous detection of D4Z4 repeat length and methylation status at nucleotide level in genetically-confirmed and suspected patients. RESULTS: We found significant hypomethylation of contracted 4q-D4Z4 repeats in FSHD1, and both 4q- and 10q-D4Z4 repeats in FSHD2. We also found that the hypomethylation in the contracted D4Z4 in FSHD1 is moderately correlated with patient phenotypes. CONCLUSIONS: Our method contributes to the development for the diagnosis of FSHD using Nanopore long-read sequencing. This finding might give insight into the mechanisms by which repeat contraction causes disease pathogenesis.

Intranuclear inclusions in skin biopsies are not limited to neuronal intranuclear inclusion disease but can also be seen in oculopharyngodistal myopathy.

AIMS: Oculopharyngodistal myopathy (OPDM) is caused by the expansion of CGG repeats in NOTCH2NLC (OPDM_NOTCH2NLC) GIPC1 (OPDM_GIPC1), or LRP12 (OPDM_LRP12). Neuronal intranuclear inclusion disease (NIID) is clinically distinct from OPDM but is also caused by the expansion of CGG repeats in NOTCH2NLC, which may be an indicator of intranuclear inclusion in skin biopsy. We investigated the presence of intranuclear inclusions in skin biopsies from patients with OPDM and muscle diseases with a similar pathology to evaluate whether they will have similar diagnostic findings on skin biopsy. METHODS: We analysed the frequency of p62-positive intranuclear inclusions in sweat gland cells, adipocytes and fibroblasts in skin biopsy samples from patients with OPDM (OPDM_NOTCH2NLC [n = 2], OPDM_GIPC1 [n = 6] and OPDM_LRP12 [n = 3]), NIID (n = 1), OPMD (n = 1), IBM (n = 4) and GNE myopathy (n = 2). RESULTS: The p62-postive intranuclear inclusions were observed in all three cell types in both patients with OPDM_NOTCH2NLC and a patient with NIID, in at least one cell type in all six patients with OPDM_GIPC1, and all in three cell types in one of the three patients with OPDM_LRP12. These findings were not observed in patients with OPMD, IBM or GNE myopathy. CONCLUSION: Intranuclear inclusions in skin biopsy samples are not specific to NIID and are found in all three types of genetically confirmed OPDM, suggesting that the underlying mechanism of OPDM may be similar to NIID, regardless of causative genes.

Assessing Dysferlinopathy Patients Over Three Years With a New Motor Scale.

OBJECTIVE: Dysferlinopathy is a muscular dystrophy with a highly variable clinical presentation and currently unpredictable progression. This variability and unpredictability presents difficulties for prognostication and clinical trial design. The Jain Clinical Outcomes Study of Dysferlinopathy aims to establish the validity of the North Star Assessment for Limb Girdle Type Muscular Dystrophies (NSAD) scale and identify factors that influence the rate of disease progression using NSAD. METHODS: We collected a longitudinal series of functional assessments from 187 patients with dysferlinopathy over 3 years. Rasch analysis was used to develop the NSAD, a motor performance scale suitable for ambulant and nonambulant patients. Generalized estimating equations were used to evaluate the impact of patient factors on outcome trajectories. RESULTS: The NSAD detected significant change in clinical progression over 1 year. The steepest functional decline occurred during the first 10 years after symptom onset, with more rapid decline noted in patients who developed symptoms at a younger age (p = 0.04). The most rapidly deteriorating group over the study was patients 3 to 8 years post symptom onset at baseline. INTERPRETATION: The NSAD is the first validated limb girdle specific scale of motor performance, suitable for use in clinical practice and clinical trials. Longitudinal analysis showed it may be possible to identify patient factors associated with greater functional decline both across the disease course and in the short-term for clinical trial preparation. Through further work and validation in this cohort, we anticipate that a disease model incorporating functional performance will allow for more accurate prognosis for patients with dysferlinopathy. ANN NEUROL 2021;89:967-978.

Assessment of thrombocytopenia, sleep apnea, and cardiac involvement in GNE myopathy patients.

INTRODUCTION: We previously identified UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (GNE) myopathy patients with sleep apnea and a past history of thrombocytopenia, but without disease-specific cardiac involvement. This study aimed to clarify the occurrence, severity, and serial changes of these complications. METHODS: Thirty-three genetically confirmed GNE myopathy patients who participated in a 5-y longitudinal observational history study underwent platelet count and platelet-associated immunoglobulin G (PA-IgG) measurements, a sleep study, and electrocardiography (ECG), Holter ECG, and echocardiogram examinations. RESULTS: Among the 33 patients, three had low platelet counts and 17 out of 26 were PA-IgG positive. No patient exhibited bleeding tendencies, and 3 out of 28 had low platelet counts. Muscle weakness was more pronounced, and summed MMT and grip power significantly lower, in PA-IgG-positive patients than in PA-IgG-negative patients. Of 19 patients, 7, 4, and 3 who underwent a sleep study had mild, moderate, and severe sleep apnea, respectively, and three started continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). The respiratory disturbance index was not significantly correlated with physical evaluation items or forced vital capacity. All patients underwent ECG, 32 underwent cardiac ultrasound, and 25 underwent Holter ECG. No disease-specific cardiac involvement was noted, no serial changes during the follow-up period were observed for ECG and echocardiography, and none of the patients required therapy for cardiac abnormalities. DISCUSSION: PA-IgG is a potential disease biomarker in GNE myopathy patients, although its significance needs to be clarified. While none of the patients in this study experienced cardiomyopathy or arrythmia due to myopathy, sleep apnea was identified as a frequent complication.

Comparison of strength testing modalities in dysferlinopathy.

INTRODUCTION/AIMS: Dysferlinopathy demonstrates heterogeneity in muscle weakness between patients, which can progress at different rates over time. Changing muscle strength due to disease progression or from an investigational product is associated with changing functional ability. The purpose of this study was to compare three methods of strength testing used in the Clinical Outcome Study (COS) for dysferlinopathy to understand which method and which muscle groups were most sensitive to change over time. METHODS: Patients were evaluated at each study visit using functional scales, manual muscle testing, and handheld dynamometry (HHD) at all 15 sites. A fixed-frame system (Fixed) was used at a subset of seven sites. Screening and baseline visits were evaluated for reliability. Data over a 1-year period were analyzed to determine sensitivity to change among strength modalities and individual muscle groups. RESULTS: HHD and Fixed captured significant change across 1 year in summed muscle strength score of four muscle groups (P < .01). Strength summed scores were significantly correlated with functional scales (rho = 0.68-0.92, P < .001). Individual muscle groups, however, showed high levels of variability between visits. DISCUSSION: Although both HHD and Fixed demonstrate change over 12 months, HHD is a less expensive option that provides data on a continuous scale and may be easier to implement. Due to variability in strength measures, researchers should carefully consider use of strength testing as an outcome and may wish to select functional measures with less variability as clinical trial endpoints.

Cardiac and pulmonary findings in dysferlinopathy: A 3-year, longitudinal study.

INTRODUCTION/AIMS: There is debate about whether and to what extent either respiratory or cardiac dysfunction occurs in patients with dysferlinopathy. This study aimed to establish definitively whether dysfunction in either system is part of the dysferlinopathy phenotype. METHODS: As part of the Jain Foundation's International Clinical Outcome Study (COS) for dysferlinopathy, objective measures of respiratory and cardiac function were collected twice, with a 3-y interval between tests, in 188 genetically confirmed patients aged 11-86 y (53% female). Measures included forced vital capacity (FVC), electrocardiogram (ECG), and echocardiogram (echo). RESULTS: Mean FVC was 90% predicted at baseline, decreasing to 88% at year 3. FVC was less than 80% predicted in 44 patients (24%) at baseline and 48 patients (30%) by year 3, including ambulant participants. ECGs showed P-wave abnormalities indicative of delayed trans-atrial conduction in 58% of patients at baseline, representing a risk for developing atrial flutter or fibrillation. The prevalence of impaired left ventricular function or hypertrophy was comparable to that in the general population. DISCUSSION: These results demonstrate clinically significant respiratory impairment and abnormal atrial conduction in some patients with dysferlinopathy. Therefore, we recommend that annual or biannual follow-up should include FVC measurement, enquiry about arrhythmia symptoms and peripheral pulse palpation to assess cardiac rhythm. However, periodic specialist cardiac review is probably not warranted unless prompted by symptoms or abnormal pulse findings.

Unique Lewy pathology in myotonic dystrophy type 1.

Lewy body-related α-synucleinopathy (Lewy pathology) has been reported in patients with myotonic dystrophy (DM) type 1 (DM1), but no detailed report has described the prevalence and extent of its occurrence. We studied consecutive full autopsy cases of DM1 at the National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP) Brain Bank for intractable psychiatric and neurological disorders. Thirty-two cases, genetically determined to be DM1 (59.0 ± 8.7 years), obtained from the NCNP Brain Bank, were compared with control cases obtained from the Brain Bank for Aging Research (BBAR) in Japan. The investigated anatomical sites followed the Dementia with Lewy Bodies Consensus Guideline, expanding to the peripheral autonomic nervous system, temporal pole, and occipital cortex, in addition to the olfactory epithelium and spinal cord. Of the 32 patients, 11 (34.4%) had Lewy pathology, with a significantly higher prevalence than that in the control cases from the BBAR (20.1%). Lewy pathology detected in DM1 was widespread, but no macroscopic depigmentation of the substantia nigra was observed in any DM1 case; this was commensurate with the microscopic paucity of Lewy pathology in the substantia nigra and amygdala. Lewy pathology in DM1 does not appear to follow either Braak's ascending paradigm or the olfactory-amygdala extension. Lewy neurites and dots in DM1 were very sparse in the cerebral cortex and distinct from those observed in BBAR control cases. This study was the first demonstration of unique Lewy pathology in DM1 and may contribute to the understanding of the protein propagation hypothesis of Lewy pathology.

Severe cardiac involvement with preserved truncated dystrophin expression in Becker muscular dystrophy by +1G>A DMD splice-site mutation: a case report.

Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) is caused by specific mutations in the DMD gene that causes progressive muscle weakness and primarily affects skeletal and cardiac muscle. Although cardiac involvement is a significant cause of mortality in BMD, the genetic-phenotype correlation for skeletal and cardiac muscles has not been elucidated. Here, we described a 39-year-old man with BMD, who presented with subtle skeletal muscle weakness in the right leg in his 20s and underwent left ventricular restoration for severe dilated cardiomyopathy at the age of 29. He had difficulty climbing stairs after the age of 35. Neither duplication nor deletion of exons was detected by multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification. A hemizygous c.264 + 1G>A mutation in intron 4 of the DMD was identified by next-generation sequencing. Furthermore, exon 4 skipping of the DMD was confirmed in both skeletal and cardiac muscles evaluated by reverse transcriptase PCR. Endomyocardial and skeletal muscle biopsies revealed dystrophic pathology characterized by muscle fiber atrophy and hypertrophy with a mild degree of interstitial fibrosis. Interestingly, dystrophin immunohistochemistry demonstrated patchy and faint staining of the skeletal muscle membranes but almost normal staining of the cardiac muscle membranes. Western blot analysis revealed a decreased amount of truncated dystrophin in skeletal muscle but surprisingly almost normal amount in cardiac muscle. This case indicates that BMD patients may have severe cardiac dysfunction despite preserved cardiac truncated dystrophin expression.

Quantitative Analysis of Surface Electromyography for Pediatric Neuromuscular Disorders.

INTRODUCTION: Needle electromyography (EMG) has been an important diagnostic tool, although discomfort may limit its use in some children. We investigated the diagnostic utility of the clustering index (CI) method, a quantitative analysis for surface EMG (SEMG), in children. METHODS: SEMG was recorded from the tibialis anterior muscle. Discriminant analysis between patients with neurogenic disorders and patients with myopathy was performed for whole epochs by using the CI and area values. RESULTS: Forty-five children (29 with myopathy, 16 with neurogenic disorders; age 9 ± 3.9 years) were enrolled. The mean discriminant function value of the neurogenic group was 0.58 ± 0.88 (-0.48-2.30), whereas that of the myopathic group was -0.55 ± 0.70 (-2.38-0.68). When the cutoff value was set at the limit of the other group, 17 of 29 children with myopathy and 7 of 16 children with neurogenic disorders were correctly classified. DISCUSSION: The CI method can be a useful noninvasive diagnostic tool in children with neuromuscular disorders. Muscle Nerve 58:824-827, 2018.

Missing genetic variations in GNE myopathy: rearrangement hotspots encompassing 5'UTR and founder allele.

GNE myopathy is an autosomal recessive distal myopathy caused by loss-of-function mutations in the GNE gene, which encodes UDP-GlcNAc 2-epimerase/ManNAc kinase (GNE), a key enzyme in sialic-acid biosynthesis. By comprehensive screening of manifesting patients using a fine-mapped targeted next-generation sequencing (NGS), we identified copy number variations (CNVs) in 13 patients from 11 unrelated families. The nine unique CNVs largely vary in size from 0.3 to 72 kb. Over half of the cases carry different deletions spanning merely exon 2, which contains the 5' untranslated region (5'UTR) of the muscle major transcript hGNE1. Of most unique CNVs, either the telomeric or the centromeric breakpoint locates within intron 2, indicating rearrangement hotspots. Haplotype analysis suggested the existence of a founder allele with exon 2 deletion. The breakpoints for all CNVs were determined by long-range PCR and sequencing. All of the breakpoints of gross deletion/duplications reside within directly oriented pairs of Alu repeats. The results of this study firstly widen the spectra of mutations to CNVs encompassing 5'UTR, underscoring the pivotal role of the hGNE1 transcript. Alu-mediated non-recurrent CNVs may have been overlooked in a wide variety of recessive phenotypes, especially in those associated with genomic Alu-rich genes such as GNE.

Pediatric necrotizing myopathy associated with anti-3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase antibodies.

OBJECTIVE: Antibodies against 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) have recently been associated with immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy, especially in patients with statin exposure. As the data are very limited concerning phenotypes and treatment in paediatric patients, we aimed to identify the paediatric patients positive for anti-HMGCR antibodies and clarify their features and therapeutic strategies. METHODS: We screened 62 paediatric patients who were clinically and/or pathologically suspected to have inflammatory myopathy for anti-HMGCR antibodies. We further re-assessed the clinical and histological findings and the treatment of the patients positive for anti-HMGCR antibodies. RESULTS: We identified nine paediatric patients with anti-HMGCR antibodies (15%). This was more frequent than anti-signal recognition particle antibodies (four patients, 6%) in our cohort. The onset age ranged from infancy to 13 years. Five patients were initially diagnosed with muscular dystrophy, including congenital muscular dystrophy. Most patients responded to high-dose corticosteroid therapy first but often needed adjuvant immunosuppressants to become stably controlled. CONCLUSION: Paediatric necrotizing myopathy associated with anti-HMGCR antibodies may not be very rare. Phenotypes are similar to those of adult patients, but a chronic slowly progressive course may be more frequent. Some patients share the clinicopathological features of muscular dystrophy indicating that recognizing inflammatory aetiology would be challenging without autoantibody information. On the other hand, most patients responded to treatment, especially those who were diagnosed early. Our results suggest the importance of early autoantibody testing in paediatric patients who have manifestations apparently compatible with muscular dystrophy in addition to those who have typical features of inflammatory myopathy.

Cardiopulmonary dysfunction in patients with limb-girdle muscular dystrophy 2A.

INTRODUCTION: Little is known about the frequency of cardiopulmonary failure in limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2A (calpainopathy) patients, although some studies have reported severe cardiomyopathy or respiratory failure. METHODS: To clarify the frequency of cardiopulmonary dysfunction in this patient population, we retrospectively reviewed the respiratory and cardiac function of 43 patients with calpainopathy. RESULTS: Nine of the 43 patients had forced vital capacity (FVC) < 80%, and 3 used noninvasive positive pressure ventilation. Mean FVC was significantly lower in patients who were nonambulant and had normal creatine kinase levels. Only 1 patient had a prolonged QRS complex duration. Echocardiography revealed that 1 patient had very mild left ventricular dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that patients with calpainopathy may develop severe respiratory failure, but cardiac dysfunction is infrequent. Muscle Nerve 55: 465-469, 2017.

Respiratory and cardiac function in japanese patients with dysferlinopathy.

INTRODUCTION: We retrospectively reviewed respiratory and cardiac function in patients with dysferlinopathy, including 2 autopsy cases with respiratory dysfunction. METHODS: Subjects included 48 patients who underwent respiratory evaluation (n = 47), electrocardiography (n = 46), and echocardiography (n = 23). RESULTS: Of the 47 patients, 10 had reduced percent forced vital capacity (%FVC), and 4 required non-invasive positive pressure ventilation. %FVC was significantly correlated with disease duration, and mean %FVC was significantly lower in non-ambulatory patients, as well as in those aged ≥65 years with normal creatine kinase levels. On electrocardiography, QRS complex duration was prolonged in 19 patients, although no significant association with age, disease duration, or respiratory function was found. Echocardiography indicated no left ventricular dysfunction in any patient. Histopathology of autopsied cases revealed mild cardiomyopathy and moderate diaphragm involvement. CONCLUSION: Patients with dysferlinopathy may develop severe respiratory failure and latent cardiac dysfunction. Both respiratory and cardiac function should be monitored diligently.

Necklace cytoplasmic bodies in hereditary myopathy with early respiratory failure.

BACKGROUND: In hereditary myopathy with early respiratory failure (HMERF), cytoplasmic bodies (CBs) are often localised in subsarcolemmal regions, with necklace-like alignment (necklace CBs), in muscle fibres although their sensitivity and specificity are unknown. OBJECTIVE: To elucidate the diagnostic value of the necklace CBs in the pathological diagnosis of HMERF among myofibrillar myopathies (MFMs). METHODS: We sequenced the exon 343 of TTN gene (based on ENST00000589042), which encodes the fibronectin-3 (FN3) 119 domain of the A-band and is a mutational hot spot for HMERF, in genomic DNA from 187 patients from 175 unrelated families who were pathologically diagnosed as MFM. We assessed the sensitivity and specificity of the necklace CBs for HMERF by re-evaluating the muscle pathology of our patients with MFM. RESULTS: TTN mutations were identified in 17 patients from 14 families, whose phenotypes were consistent with HMERF. Among them, 14 patients had necklace CBs. In contrast, none of other patients with MFM had necklace CBs except for one patient with reducing body myopathy. The sensitivity and specificity were 82% and 99%, respectively. Positive predictive value was 93% in the MFM cohort. CONCLUSIONS: The necklace CB is a useful diagnostic marker for HMERF. When muscle pathology shows necklace CBs, sequencing the FN3 119 domain of A-band in TTN should be considered.

Social difficulties and care burden of adult Duchenne muscular dystrophy in Japan: a questionnaire survey based on the Japanese Registry of Muscular Dystrophy (Remudy).

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the social difficulties and health care needs of adult Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) patients in Japan, as well as the financial and physical stress experienced by their caregivers. This study aimed to clarify the social circumstances surrounding adult DMD patients and assess the degree of involvement of family members in their care and the associated economic burden of the disorder in Japan. METHODS: Adult DMD patients were identified through the Registry of Muscular Dystrophy (Remudy) in Japan and invited to complete a questionnaire together with a caregiver. Data on health care use, quality of life, work status, informal care, and household expenses were collected to estimate the costs associated with DMD from social and caregiver household perspectives. RESULTS: In total, 234 (63.7%) of 367 adult DMD patients (mean age, 27.4 ± 6.0; range, 20-48 years) completed the questionnaire. Of these, 38 (21%) had developmental disorders (mental retardation, autism, and learning disorders), 57 (33%) experienced bullying in school, and 44 (77%) indicated the reason for bullying to be their physical handicap. Employment histories were noted by 72 (31%), although 23 (10%) lost their jobs mainly due to physical difficulties. Of the 234 patients, 164 (74%) lived with their relatives, and 78% of care time was supplied by family members, in particular, their mothers. The mean rate of care work provided by family members was 81%. Household income of families with an adult DMD patient was lower, whereas the rate of living with parent(s) and grandparent(s) was higher, in comparison with the general Japanese population. CONCLUSIONS: Adult DMD patients in Japan experience many social difficulties from childhood up to adulthood. As adults, many DMD patients experience bullying and workplace difficulties. Families were found to provide most of the care and financial support for DMD patients. Our results suggest the need to improve public patient care systems, including financial support, to address the physical and economic burdens of care for adult DMD patients in Japan.