High prevalence of hepatitis B virus susceptibility among persons undergoing community-based hepatitis C virus treatment.

BACKGROUND: Due to shared modes of transmission, coinfection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) is common, and HBV vaccination is recommended for all persons with HCV who remain susceptible to HBV. To identify potential gaps in HBV vaccination among this high-risk population, we aimed to determine the patterns of HBV susceptibility in persons undergoing community-based HCV treatment. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional study within two community-based HCV treatment programs in an urban US setting. Participants were identified for HCV screening and confirmatory testing via street-outreach recruitment directed at persons experiencing homelessness and currently using drugs. Participants were excluded if HBsAg was reactive. Cohort characteristics were obtained via intake surveys and descriptive analysis was performed by exposure status. RESULTS: Among 150 participants without chronic HBV receiving community-based HCV treatment, 43% had evidence of prior HBV infection, 26% were immune from vaccination, and 31% were non-immune. Among the subset of the cohort reporting current injection drug use (IDU) (N = 100), 31% (n = 10) of those aged 24-40 and 47% (n = 23) of those aged 41-57 remained susceptible to HBV infection. By contrast only two participants aged 58-74 were HBV non-immune (11%), with 84% immune due to prior exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Our data reflect a high prevalence of HBV susceptibility among persons undergoing community-based HCV treatment. Although younger patients were more likely to be immune due to vaccination, a high proportion remained non-immune to HBV, particularly among those reporting current IDU. Our data reflect a gap in HBV vaccination among younger persons with HCV and suggest a potential role for co-localizing HBV vaccination with community-based HCV screening and treatment.

Impact of HCV Testing and Treatment on HCV Transmission Among Men Who Have Sex With Men and Who Inject Drugs in San Francisco: A Modelling Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Men who have sex with men who ever injected drugs (ever MSM-IDU) carry a high hepatitis C virus (HCV) burden. We estimated whether current HCV testing and treatment in San Francisco can achieve the 2030 World Health Organization (WHO) HCV elimination target on HCV incidence among ever MSM-IDU. METHODS: A dynamic HCV/HIV transmission model among MSM was calibrated to San Francisco data, including HCV antibody (15.5%, 2011) and HIV prevalence (32.8%, 2017) among ever MSM-IDU. MSM had high HCV testing (79%-86% ever tested, 2011-2019) and diagnosed MSM had high HCV treatment (65% ever treated, 2018). Following coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-related lockdowns, HCV testing and treatment decreased by 59%. RESULTS: Among all MSM, 43% of incident HCV infections in 2022 were IDU-related. Among ever MSM-IDU in 2015, HCV incidence was 1.2/100 person-years (95% credibility interval [CrI], 0.8-1.6). Assuming COVID-19-related declines in HCV testing/treatment persist until 2030, HCV incidence among ever MSM-IDU will decrease by 84.9% (95% CrI, 72.3%-90.8%) over 2015-2030. This decline is largely attributed to HCV testing and treatment (75.8%; 95% CrI, 66.7%-89.5%). Slightly greater decreases in HCV incidence (94%-95%) are projected if COVID-19 disruptions recover by 2025 or 2022. CONCLUSIONS: We estimate that HCV incidence will decline by >80% over 2015-2030 among ever MSM-IDU in San Francisco, achieving the WHO target.

Informal Caregiving Among Faculty at a Large Academic Health Sciences University in the United States: an Opportunity for Policy Changes.

OBJECTIVE: This article aims to determine the prevalence of caregiving among faculty at a large academic health sciences institution, to examine the effect of gender and other demographic and professional covariates on caregiving status, and to explore caregiver-generated policy recommendations. METHOD: A cross-sectional, mixed-methods survey was collected from June through August 2018. Participants were faculty within one of the institution's health professional schools (dentistry, medicine, nursing, or pharmacy) receiving at least 50% salary from the institution. In addition to demographic information, we collected academic series and rank, and assessed association between covariates on caregiving status using logistic regression. We analyzed open-ended responses using thematic analysis to identify themes in caregiver barriers and policy suggestions. RESULTS: Among 657 eligible respondents, 11.4% were informal caregivers. Women were more likely to be caregivers than men (aOR 2.53, 95% CI: 1.40, 4.78), as were older faculty. Caregivers identified unsupportive climate or unrealistic work expectations, concern about career advancement, insufficient information about policies, and concern about colleague burden as barriers to support. Suggestions for workplace support included improved leave policies, increased flexibility, caregiver resource support, improved clarity and dissemination of policy information, and financial support. CONCLUSIONS: Women faculty are more likely to be informal caregivers, exacerbating disparities within academic medicine for promotion and retention among women faculty. Institutions might include caregiving status in annual burnout surveys to guide the development of structural support and policies for extension of family leave beyond childbearing (or catastrophic leave), flexibility in work hours, and subsidized eldercare services.

Identification of Genetically Related HCV Infections Among Self-Described Injecting Partnerships.

BACKGROUND: The current opioid epidemic across the United States has fueled a surge in the rate of new hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections among young persons who inject drugs (PWIDs). Paramount to interrupting transmission is targeting these high-risk populations and understanding the underlying network structures facilitating transmission within these communities. METHODS: Deep sequencing data were obtained for 52 participants from 32 injecting partnerships enrolled in the U-Find-Out (UFO) Partner Study, which is a prospective study of self-described injecting dyad partnerships from a large community-based study of HCV infection in young adult PWIDs from San Francisco. Phylogenetically linked transmission events were identified using traditional genetic-distance measures and viral deep sequence phylogenies reconstructed to determine the statistical support of inferences and the direction of transmission within partnerships. RESULTS: Using deep sequencing data, we found that 12 of 32 partnerships were genetically similar and clustered. Three additional phylogenetic clusters were found describing novel putative transmission links outside of the injecting relationship. Transmission direction was inferred correctly for 5 partnerships with the incorrect transmission direction inferred in more than 50% of cases. Notably, we observed that phylogenetic linkage was most often associated with a lower number of network partners and involvement in a sexual relationship. CONCLUSIONS: Deep sequencing of HCV among self-described injecting partnerships demonstrates that the majority of transmission events originate from outside of the injecting partnership. Furthermore, these findings caution that phylogenetic methods may be unable to routinely infer the direction of transmission among PWIDs especially when transmission events occur in rapid succession within high-risk networks.

Hepatitis C Care Cascades for 3 Populations at High Risk: Low-income Trans Women, Young People Who Inject Drugs, and Men Who Have Sex With Men and Inject Drugs.

BACKGROUND: To achieve elimination of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, limited resources can be best allocated through estimation of "care cascades" among groups disproportionately affected. In San Francisco and elsewhere, these groups include young (age ≤ 30 years) people who inject drugs (YPWID), men who have sex with men who inject drugs (MSM-IDU), and low-income trans women. METHODS: We developed cross-sectional HCV care cascades for YPWID, MSM-IDU, and trans women using diverse data sources. Population sizes were estimated using an inverse variance-weighted average of estimates from the peer-reviewed literature between 2013 and 2019. Proportions of past/current HCV infection, diagnosed infection, treatment initiation, and evidence of cure (sustained virologic response at 12 weeks posttreatment) were estimated from the literature using data from 7 programs and studies in San Francisco between 2015 and 2020. RESULTS: The estimated number of YPWID in San Francisco was 3748; 58.4% had past/current HCV infection, of whom 66.4% were diagnosed with current infection, 9.1% had initiated treatment, and 50% had confirmed cure. The corresponding figures for the 8135 estimated MSM-IDU were: 29.4% with past/current HCV infection, 70.3% diagnosed with current infection, 28.4% initiated treatment, and 38.9% with confirmed cure. For the estimated 951 low-income trans women, 24.8% had past/current HCV infection, 68.9% were diagnosed with current infection, 56.5% initiated treatment, and 75.5% had confirmed cure. CONCLUSIONS: In all 3 populations, diagnosis rates were relatively high; however, attention is needed to urgently increase treatment initiation in all groups, with a particular unmet need among YPWID.

A Randomized Study to Assess the Effect of Including the Graduate Record Examinations Results on Reviewer Scores for Underrepresented Minorities.

Whether requiring Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) results for doctoral applicants affects the diversity of admitted cohorts remains uncertain. This study randomized applications to 2 population-health doctoral programs at the University of California San Francisco to assess whether masking reviewers to applicant GRE results differentially affects reviewers' scores for underrepresented minority (URM) applicants from 2018-2020. Applications with GRE results and those without were randomly assigned to reviewers to designate scores for each copy (1-10, 1 being best). URM was defined as self-identification as African American/Black, Filipino, Hmong, Vietnamese, Hispanic/Latinx, Native American/Alaska Native, or Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander. We used linear mixed models with random effects for the applicant and fixed effects for each reviewer to evaluate the effect of masking the GRE results on the overall application score and whether this effect differed by URM status. Reviewer scores did not significantly differ for unmasked versus masked applications among non-URM applicants (ß = 0.15; 95% CI: -0.03, 0.33) or URM applicants (ß = 0.02, 95% CI: -0.49, 0.54). We did not find evidence that removing GREs differentially affected URM compared with non-URM students (ß for interaction = -0.13, 95% CI: -0.55, 0.29). Within these doctoral programs, results indicate that GRE scores neither harm nor help URM applicants.

"Violence and love and drugs it all goes hand in hand": A mixed methods analysis of the substance abuse, violence, and HIV/AIDS syndemic among women who use methamphetamine.

Background: The synergistic epidemics of substance use, violence, and HIV/AIDS, also known as the SAVA syndemic, disproportionately affects vulnerable women in the United States. Methamphetamine use is closely linked with physical and sexual violence, including intimate partner violence (IPV), which heightens women's vulnerability to HIV. This mixed methods study examined the prevalence and correlates of violence among women who use methamphetamine, (n = 209) enrolled in an HIV intervention study in San Diego, California. Methods: At baseline, 209 women completed an interviewer-administered computer-assisted survey. A sub set of women who reported lifetime IPV (n = 18) also participated in qualitative interviews to contextualize our understanding of patterns of violence over time. Results: In the overall cohort, reports of lifetime (66.0%) and past 2-month (19.6%) IPV were prevalent. Moreover, women reported lifetime physical only (27.3%), sexual only (6.2%), or both forms of violence (50.7%) by multiple perpetrators. Factors independently associated with lifetime IPV were having unprotected sex with a steady partner (odds ratio [OR]: 2.50, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.04, 6.00) and being high on methamphetamine during unprotected sex with a steady partner (OR: 2.56, 95% CI: 1.30, 5.09) within the past 2 months. Our qualitative narratives illuminated how IPV in women's steady relationships often reflects a culmination of violent victimization throughout their lifetime which is further exacerbated by methamphetamine use and sexual risk through gendered power dynamics. Conclusions: HIV prevention interventions should address the SAVA syndemic in a holistic manner, including the role of methamphetamine use in the context of women's abusive steady relationships.

The Society for Epidemiologic Research and the Future of Diversity and Inclusion in Epidemiology.

"The mission of the Diversity and Inclusion Committee (D&I) in the Society for Epidemiologic Research is to foster the diversity of our membership and work towards the engagement of all members, from diverse backgrounds at all stages of their careers, in the Society's activities, with the intent of enhancing discovery in public health." As a foundational step in implementing our mission, the D&I Committee conducted a survey of SER membership. Here we report on the efforts we have undertaken to expand the diversity and inclusiveness of our Society and our aspirations for future efforts in support of D&I. Early on, we established the SERvisits program to conduct outreach to institutions and students that have historically been underrepresented at SER; we hope this program continues to grow in its reach and impact. We have also taken steps to increase the inclusiveness of SER activities, for example, by engaging members on issues of D&I through symposia and workshops at SER annual meetings and through social media. DeVilbiss et al. (Am J Epidemiol. 2020;189(10):998-1010) have demonstrated that there is substantial room for improvement with regards to diversity and inclusion within SER. We invite SER members to become involved and collaborate on this long-term goal.

Assessing Representation and Perceived Inclusion among Members in the Society for Epidemiologic Research.

Using web-based survey data collected June - August 2018 from the Society for Epidemiologic Research (SER) members, we characterized numerous dimensions of social identity and lived experience, and assessed relationships between these characteristics and perceptions of inclusion and society participation. We quantified associations between characteristics, feeling very welcomed, high (top 25th percentile) self-initiated participation, and any (top 10th percentile) society-initiated participation. Racial/ethnic and religious minority categories were blinded to preserve anonymity and we accounted for missing data. Most 2018 SER members (n = 1631) were white (62%) or female (66%). Females with racial/ethnic non-response were least likely, while white males were most likely to report feeling very welcomed. Members who did not report race, identified with a specific racial/ethnic minority, or were politically conservative/right-leaning were less likely than white or liberal/left-leaning members to have high self-initiated participation. Women and individuals of a specific racial/ethnic minority or minority religious affiliations were less likely to participate in events initiated by the society. These data represent a baseline for assessing trends and the impact of future initiatives aimed at improving diversity, inclusion, representation and participation within SER.

Housing Stability and Hepatitis C Infection for Young Adults Who Inject Drugs: Examining the Relationship of Consistent and Intermittent Housing Status on HCV Infection Risk.

Housing status affects drug using behaviors, but less is known about the relationship between housing patterns and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. HCV-negative young people who inject drugs (PWID) were enrolled into a prospective cohort (2003-2019) with quarterly study visits. We used Cox regression to estimate the independent association of recent housing status (housed vs. unhoused, housing stability, and housing trajectory) on HCV incidence. Among 712 participants, 245 incident HCV infections occurred over 963.8 person-years (py) (cumulative incidence 24.4/100 py). An inverse relationship between time housed and HCV incidence was observed (always unhoused 45.0/100 py, 95% confidence interval (CI) 37.1, 54.5; variably housed 18.0/100 py, 95% CI 15.0, 21.3; and always housed 7.0/100 py, 95% CI 3.0, 17.3). In Cox regression models controlling for confounders, those unhoused versus housed at baseline had a 1.9-fold increased infection risk (95% CI 1.4, 2.6). Those always unhoused versus always housed had a 1.5 times greater risk of HCV (95% CI 1.0, 2.3), and those spending a portion of time in stable housing a lower risk (adjusted relative hazard 0.05, 95% CI 0.3, 0.9) with a similar trend for those being housed for less time. Young adult PWID experiencing both recent and chronic states of being unhoused are at elevated risk for HCV infection. Importantly for this group of PWID, our findings indicate that some frequency of residential housing significantly reduces HCV infection risk.

Dual Unsafe Injection and Sexual Behaviors for HIV Infection Among People Who Inject Drugs in Iran.

We used two national surveys (2010: N = 1597; 2013: N = 1057) of people who inject drugs (PWID) in past-month to assess the prevalence and population size of PWID with either safe or unsafe injection and sex behaviors, overall and by HIV status. In 2013, only 27.0% (vs. 32.3% in 2010) had safe injection and sex, 24.6% (vs. 23.3% in 2010) had unsafe injection and sex, 26.4% (vs. 26.5% in 2010) had only unsafe injection, and 22.0% (vs. 18.0% in 2010) had unsafe sex only. Among HIV-positive PWID in 2013, only 22.1% (~ 2200 persons) had safe injection and sex, 14.2% (~ 1400 persons) had unsafe injection and sex, 53.1% (~ 5200 persons) had unsafe injection, and 10.6% had unsafe sex (~ 1100 persons). Among HIV-negative PWID in 2013, only 27.5% (~ 22,200 persons) had safe injection and sex, 25.9% (~ 20,900 PWID) had unsafe injection and sex, 23.2% (~ 18,700 persons) had unsafe injection, and 23.3% (~ 18,800 persons) had unsafe sex. HIV-positive and -negative PWID in Iran continue to be at risk of HIV acquisition or transmission which calls for targeted preventions services.

The Effect of Female Sex on Hepatitis C Incidence Among People Who Inject Drugs: Results From the International Multicohort InC3 Collaborative.

Background: The objective of this study was to assess differences in hepatitis C virus (HCV) incidence by sex in people who inject drugs (PWID), using a large international multicohort set of pooled biological and behavioral data from prospective observational studies of incident human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and HCV infections in high-risk cohorts (the InC3 Collaborative). Methods: HCV infection date was estimated based on a hierarchy of successive serological (anti-HCV), virological (HCV RNA), and clinical (symptoms and/or liver function tests) data. We used a Cox proportional hazards model to calculate the crude and adjusted female to male (F:M) hazard ratio (HR) for HCV incidence using biological sex as the main exposure. Results: A total of 1868 PWID were observed over 3994 person-years of observation (PYO). Unadjusted F:M HR was 1.38 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.15-1.65) and remained significant after adjusting for behavioral and demographic risk factors (1.39 [95% CI, 1.12-1.72]). Although syringe and equipment sharing were associated with the highest HCV incidence rate in women (41.62 and 36.83 PYO, respectively), we found no sex differences attributed to these risk factors. Conclusions: Our findings indicate that women who inject drugs may be at greater risk of HCV acquisition than men, independent of demographic characteristics and risk behaviors. Multiple factors, including biological (hormonal), social network, and differential access to prevention services, may contribute to increased HCV susceptibility in women who inject drugs.

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Arrests for Drug Possession After California Proposition 47, 2011-2016.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects of California Proposition 47, which reclassified felony drug offenses to misdemeanors in 2014, on racial/ethnic disparities in drug arrests. METHODS: Using data on all drug arrests made in California from 2011 to 2016, we compared racial/ethnic disparities in drug arrests between Whites, Blacks, and Latinos, immediately and 1 year after policy changes, controlling for secular and seasonal trends. RESULTS: In the month following passage, absolute Black-White disparities in monthly felony drug arrests decreased from 81 to 44 per 100 000 and continued to decrease over time. There was an immediate increase of 27% in the relative disparity, however, because a higher proportion of felony offense types among Whites was reclassified. Total drug arrest rates also declined, suggesting drug law enforcement was deprioritized. During the first year after enactment, felony drug arrests fell by an estimated 51 985 among Whites, 15 028 among Blacks, and 50 113 among Latinos. CONCLUSIONS: Reducing criminal penalties for drug possession can reduce racial/ethnic disparities in criminal justice exposure and has implications for improving health inequalities linked to social determinants of health.

Illicit Drug Users in the Tanzanian Hinterland: Population Size Estimation Through Key Informant-Driven Hot Spot Mapping.

We mapped hot spots and estimated the numbers of people who use drugs (PWUD) and who inject drugs (PWID) in 12 regions of Tanzania. Primary (ie, current and past PWUD) and secondary (eg, police, service providers) key informants identified potential hot spots, which we visited to verify and count the number of PWUD and PWID present. Adjustments to counts and extrapolation to regional estimates were done by local experts through iterative rounds of discussion. Drug use, specifically cocaine and heroin, occurred in all regions. Tanga had the largest numbers of PWUD and PWID (5190 and 540, respectively), followed by Mwanza (3300 and 300, respectively). Findings highlight the need to strengthen awareness of drug use and develop prevention and harm reduction programs with broader reach in Tanzania. This exercise provides a foundation for understanding the extent and locations of drug use, a baseline for future size estimations, and a sampling frame for future research.

A Study of Sexual Relationship Power among Young Women Who Inject Drugs and Their Sexual Partners.

BACKGROUND: To date, research applying the Sexual Relationship Power Scale (SRPS) has been limited to sexual risk behaviors. OBJECTIVE: We measured levels of sexual relationship power and examined associations between sexual relationship power and injecting and sexual behaviors that place women at increased risk for blood borne infections. METHODS: Using data from a cross-sectional study of young women who inject drugs (WWID) in San Francisco, USA, logistic regression analysis identified independent associations between SRPS and subscale scores (relationship control [RC] and decision making dominance [DMD]) and injecting and sexual behaviors. RESULTS: Of the 68 young WWID, 24 (34%) reported receptive syringe sharing, 38 (56%) reused/shared a cooker to prepare drugs, and 25 (37%) injected someone else's drug residue during the three-months prior to enrollment. Most (60, 88%) reported condomless sex with main sex-partner, 8 (12%) reported transactional sex, and 36 (53%) had two or more recent sex partners. The median SRPS score was 2.98 (IQR: 2.65, 3.18), 3.23 (IQR: 3.23, 3.57) for RC and 2.40 (IQR: 2.20, 2.60) for DMD. No significant associations were detected between SRPS or DMD and injecting or sexual risk behaviors. After adjusting for gender and years injecting, for every one-point increase in RC, women had a 6.70 lower odds of recent condomless sex (95%CI: 0.92, 50.00, p = 0.06), and a 3.90 lower odds of recent transactional sex (95%CI: 1.22, 12.50, p = 0.02). CONCLUSION: Our study findings suggest that some components of sexual relationship power may play a role in sexual risk, but not in injecting risk.

Geographic Differences in Temporal Incidence Trends of Hepatitis C Virus Infection Among People Who Inject Drugs: The InC3 Collaboration.

BACKGROUND: We determined temporal trends (1985-2011) in hepatitis C virus (HCV) incidence and associated behavioral exposures for people who inject drugs (PWID) from the United States (Boston, Baltimore, and San Francisco), Canada (Montreal), the Netherlands (Amsterdam), and Australia (Sydney and Melbourne). METHODS: Using population-based cohort data from HCV-negative PWID, we calculated overall and within-city HCV incidence trends, HCV rates by study enrollment period (1985-2011), and temporal trends in exposure behaviors. Poisson regression models estimated trends in HCV incidence over calendar-time. Survival models identified risk factors for HCV incidence across cities and estimated independent effects of city and calendar period on HCV infection risk. RESULTS: Among 1391 initially HCV-negative participants followed prospectively (1644.5 person-years of observation [PYO]), 371 HCV incident infections resulted in an overall incidence of 22.6 per 100 PYO (95% confidence interval [CI], 20.4-25.0). Incidence was highest and remained elevated in Baltimore (32.6/100 PYO), San Francisco (24.7/100 PYO), and Montreal (23.5/100 PYO), lowest in Melbourne and Amsterdam (7.5/100 PYO and 13.1/100 PYO, respectively), and moderate (21.4/100 PYO) in Sydney. Higher rates of syringe and equipment sharing and lower prevalence of opioid agonist therapy were associated with HCV incidence in cities with the highest incidence. Risk for infection dropped by 18% for every 3-year increase in calendar-time (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.8 [95% CI, .8-.9]) in the multivariable model. CONCLUSIONS: Differences in prevention strategies and injecting contexts may explain the ongoing high HCV incidence in these North American cities and emphasize the need for scale-up of opioid agonist therapy and increased coverage of needle and syringe programs in North America.

Historical Trends in the Hepatitis C Virus Epidemics in North America and Australia.

BACKGROUND: Bayesian evolutionary analysis (coalescent analysis) based on genetic sequences has been used to describe the origins and spread of rapidly mutating RNA viruses, such as influenza, Ebola, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). METHODS: Full-length subtype 1a and 3a sequences from early HCV infections from the International Collaborative of Incident HIV and Hepatitis C in Injecting Cohorts (InC3), as well as from public databases from a time window of 1977-2012, were used in a coalescent analysis with BEAST software to estimate the origin and progression of the HCV epidemics in Australia and North America. Convergent temporal trends were sought via independent epidemiological modeling. RESULTS: The epidemic of subtype 3a had more recent origins (around 1950) than subtype 1a (around 1920) in both continents. In both modeling approaches and in both continents, the epidemics underwent exponential growth between 1955 and 1975, which then stabilized in the late 20th century. CONCLUSIONS: Historical events that fuelled the emergence and spread of injecting drug use, such as the advent of intravenous medical therapies and devices, and growth in the heroin trade, as well as population mixing during armed conflicts, were likely drivers for the cross-continental spread of the HCV epidemics.

Hepatitis C Virus Reinfection and Spontaneous Clearance of Reinfection--the InC3 Study.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to characterize the natural history of hepatitis C virus (HCV) reinfection and spontaneous clearance following reinfection (reclearance), including predictors of HCV reclearance. METHODS: Data were synthesized from the 9 prospective cohorts of the International Collaboration of Incident Human Immunodeficiency Virus and HCV in Injecting Cohorts study, which evaluated HCV infection outcomes among people who inject drugs. Participants with primary HCV infection were classified as having achieved viral suppression if they had negative results of at least 1 subsequent HCV RNA test. Those with positive results of an HCV RNA test following viral suppression were investigated for reinfection. Viral sequence analysis was used to identify reinfection (defined as detection of heterologous virus with no subsequent detection of the original viral strain). RESULTS: Among 591 participants with acute primary HCV infection, 118 were investigated for reinfection. Twenty-eight participants were reinfected (12.3 cases/100 person-years; 95% confidence interval [CI], 8.5-17.8). Peak HCV RNA level was lower during reinfection than primary infection (P = .011). The proportion of individuals with reclearance 6 months after reinfection was 52% (95% CI, 33%-73%). After adjustment for study site, females with the IFNL4 (formerly IFNL3 and IL28B) rs12979860 CC genotype detected were more likely to have reclearance (hazard ratio, 4.16; 95% CI, 1.24-13.94; P = .021). CONCLUSIONS: Sex and IFNL4 genotype are associated with spontaneous clearance after reinfection.

The effects of female sex, viral genotype, and IL28B genotype on spontaneous clearance of acute hepatitis C virus infection.

UNLABELLED: Although 20%-40% of persons with acute hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection demonstrate spontaneous clearance, the time course and factors associated with clearance remain poorly understood. We investigated the time to spontaneous clearance and predictors among participants with acute HCV using Cox proportional hazards analyses. Data for this analysis were drawn from an international collaboration of nine prospective cohorts evaluating outcomes after acute HCV infection. Among 632 participants with acute HCV, 35% were female, 82% were Caucasian, 49% had interleukin-28 (IL28)B CC genotype (rs12979860), 96% had injected drugs ever, 47% were infected with HCV genotype 1, and 7% had human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection. Twenty-eight percent were HCV antibody negative/RNA positive at the time of acute HCV detection (early acute HCV). During follow-up, spontaneous clearance occurred in 173 of 632, and at 1 year after infection, 25% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 21, 29) had cleared virus. Among those with clearance, the median time to clearance was 16.5 weeks (IQR: 10.5, 33.4), with 34%, 67%, and 83% demonstrating clearance at 3, 6, and 12 months. Adjusting for age, factors independently associated with time to spontaneous clearance included female sex (adjusted hazards ratio [AHR]: 2.16; 95% CI: 1.48, 3.18), IL28B CC genotype (versus CT/TT; AHR, 2.26; 95% CI: 1.52, 3.34), and HCV genotype 1 (versus non-genotype 1; AHR: 1.56; 95% CI: 1.06, 2.30). The effect of IL28B genotype and HCV genotype on spontaneous clearance was greater among females, compared to males. CONCLUSIONS: Female sex, favorable IL28B genotype, and HCV genotype 1 are independent predictors of spontaneous clearance. Further research is required to elucidate the observed sex-based differences in HCV control.

Staff-Facilitated Telemedicine Care Delivery for Treatment of Hepatitis C Infection among People Who Inject Drugs.

BACKGROUND: Telemedicine offers the opportunity to provide clinical services remotely, thereby bridging geographic distances for people engaged in the medical system. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the widespread adoption of telemedicine in clinical practices has persisted, highlighting its continued relevance for post-pandemic healthcare. Little is known about telemedicine use among people from socially marginalized groups. METHODS: The No One Waits (NOW) Study is a single-arm clinical trial measuring the acceptability, feasibility, and safety of an urban point-of-diagnosis hepatitis C (HCV) treatment initiation model delivered in a non-clinical community setting. Participants enrolled in the NOW Study are recruited via street outreach targeting people experiencing homelessness and injecting drugs. Throughout the NOW Study, clinical care is delivered through a novel staff-facilitated telemedicine model that not only addresses geographic and transportation barriers, but also technology and medical mistrust, barriers often unique to this population. While clinicians provide high-quality specialty practice-based care via telemedicine, on-site staff provide technical support, aid in communication and rapport, and review the clinicians' instructions and next steps with participants following the visits. Research questionnaires collect information on participants' experience with and perceptions of telemedicine (a) prior to treatment initiation and (b) at treatment completion. DISCUSSION: For people from socially marginalized groups with HCV infection, creative person-centered care approaches are necessary to diagnose, treat, and cure HCV. Although non-clinical, community-based staff-facilitated telemedicine requires additional resources compared to standard-of-care telemedicine, it could expand the reach and offer a valuable entrance into technology-delivered care for socially marginalized groups. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT03987503.