[Infectious zoonosis: risks linked to wildlife]. / Zoonoses infectieuses : risques liés à la faune sauvage.

Infectious zoonosis: risks linked to wildlife. The possibilities to be exposed to wildlife infectious disease agents, in Western Europe, are not so many but they do exist. They can be seen through two different contexts. Either they are linked to native free ranging wildlife species, either to exotic species raised as pets. In the first situation human beings are moving towards the sanitary danger, in the second situation, the danger is introduced at home. A few examples will illustrate these two situations.

Zoonoses infectieuses : risques liés à la faune sauvage. Les possibilités d'exposition à des agents de zoonoses infectieuses par la faune sauvage, en France et en Europe occidentale, ne sont peut-être pas les plus nombreuses. Elles existent néanmoins et peuvent être considérées selon deux contextes assez différents. Celui lié aux espèces sauvages de la faune indigène et celui lié aux espèces exotiques élevées comme animaux de compagnie. Dans le premier cas, c'est plutôt l'humain qui va au-devant du danger sanitaire, alors que dans le second cas le danger est introduit « dans la maison ¼. Quelques exemples illustrent ces deux cas de figure.

[The place of vertebrates in the epidemiology of zoonoses]. / Rôle des animaux vertébrés dans l'épidémiologie des zoonoses.

Zoonoses, to be distinguished here from human diseases with an animal origin, represent a large quantity of pathological entities the corresponding pathogens of which are regularly shared between human beings and many different vertebrates species. Working on selected examples and situations, whatever the contamination routes and the facilitating reasons, puts into light a real rarity of a direct transmission from the animal reservoir to human beings. On the opposite, the diversity and the possible severity of some of the sanitary consequences, quite often in relation to human behaviours, must be stressed. On a practical point of view, it seems more adapted to try first to improve the control of pathogens diffusion within human populations after a contamination than to try to start to work first on the reservoir, be it domestic or wild, the potential source of these pathogens, but following routes quite difficult to anticipate. The relationship between biodiversity and health is discussed.

[Médecine Tropicale et Santé Internationale takes a stand against editorial predation]. / Médecine Tropicale et Santé Internationale s'engage contre la prédation éditoriale.

Warnings against predatory journals get stronger. Designed to capture manuscripts with the promise of rapid publication, the main aim of these journals is to charge abusive publication fees. Sometimes boasting imaginary impact factors, they are not indexed and offer no guarantee of visibility, accessibility or durability of the published article. Above all, they have no concern for the rigor and scientific integrity of the work they publish.

[Risks of tropical diseases becoming established in Europe]. / Risques d'implantation en Europe de maladies infectieuses exotiques.

To become established in new populations, pathogens must amplify and spread within their host species, thereby creating a transmission focus. The conditions necessary for successful implantation depend on the nature of the microorganism and its mode of transmission. The establishment of a tropical infectious disease requires a combination of environmental and human factors, as well as favorable ecological conditions. This complex interplay, in which humans have an increasingly influential role, makes it difficult to predict which pathogens are most at risk. Despite the increasing frequency of introductions, few new pathogens become established in Europe. We must prepare for these unpredictable events by perfecting clinical, microbiological and entomological surveillance networks and rapid detection systems.

Mycobacterium bovis in wildlife in France.

In early 2001, tuberculosis-like lesions were detected in three hunter-killed red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the Brotonne Forest (Normandy, France), and Mycobacterium bovis was isolated. In subsequent hunting seasons, two surveys were conducted in the area. In the first survey (2001-02 hunting season), nine (13%) of 72 red deer sampled were positive for M. bovis. In the 2005-06 hunting season, the prevalence of M. bovis infection increased to 24% (chi2=3.85, df=1, P=0.05; 33 positive among 138 sampled). The prevalence remained stable in juveniles, but it increased significantly in adults: from 13% in 2001-02 to 32% in 2005-06 (chi2=5.13, df=1, P=0.02). Wild boar (Sus scrofa) were heavily infected in both surveys. One roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and one red fox (Vulpes vulpes) also tested positive in the second survey. Mycobacterium bovis was not isolated from Eurasian badgers (Meles meles). Spoligotyping and mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable number tandem repeat analysis demonstrated that all M. bovis strains isolated from wildlife were of the same genotype. Thus, the wildlife outbreak involved only a single strain, and this strain was the same as that circulating in nearby cattle herds since 1995. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of the presence of macroscopic lesions as a diagnostic criterion were evaluated from the data obtained from red deer. Necropsy seems to be satisfactory as a routine tool to monitor the disease in wild red deer populations in which bovine tuberculosis has become established.

SARS-CoV related Betacoronavirus and diverse Alphacoronavirus members found in western old-world.

The emergence of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, triggered the discovery of a high diversity of coronaviruses in bats. Studies from Europe have shown that coronaviruses circulate in bats in France but this reflects only a fraction of the whole diversity. In the current study the diversity of coronaviruses circulating in western Europe was extensively explored. Ten alphacoronaviruses in eleven bat species belonging to the Miniopteridae, Vespertilionidae and Rhinolophidae families and, a SARS-CoV-related Betacoronavirus in Rhinolophus ferrumequinum were identified. The diversity and prevalence of bat coronaviruses presently reported from western Europe is much higher than previously described and includes a SARS-CoV sister group. This diversity demonstrates the dynamic evolution and circulation of coronaviruses in this species. That said, the identified coronaviruses were consistently associated with a particular bat species or genus, and these relationships were maintained no matter the geographic location. The observed phylogenetic grouping of coronaviruses from the same species in Europe and Asia, emphasizes the role of host/pathogen coevolution in this group.

Identification of Alpha and Beta Coronavirus in Wildlife Species in France: Bats, Rodents, Rabbits, and Hedgehogs.

Coronaviruses are closely monitored in the context of emerging diseases and, as illustrated with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-coronavirus (MERS-CoV), are known to cross the species barrier and eventually to move from wildlife to humans. Knowledge of the diversity of coronaviruses in wildlife is therefore essential to better understand and prevent emergence events. This study explored the presence of coronaviruses in four wild mammal orders in France: Bats, rodents, lagomorphs, and hedgehogs. Betacoronavirus and Alphacoronavirus genera were identified. The results obtained suggest the circulation of potentially evolving virus strains, with the potential to cross the species barrier.

Comparative molecular epidemiology of two closely related coronaviruses, bovine coronavirus (BCoV) and human coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43), reveals a different evolutionary pattern.

Bovine coronaviruses (BCoVs) are widespread around the world and cause enteric or respiratory infections among cattle. The current study includes 13 samples from BCoVs collected in Normandy during an 11-year period (from 2003 to 2014), 16 French HCoV-OC43s, and 113 BCoVs or BCoVs-like sequence data derived from partial or complete genome sequences available on GenBank. According to a genotyping method developed previously for HCoV-OC43, BCoVs and BCoVs-like are distributed on three main sub-clusters named C1, C2, and C3. Sub-cluster C1 includes BCoVs and BCoVs-like from America and Asia. Sub-cluster C2 includes BCoVs from Europe. Sub-cluster C3 includes prototype, vaccine, or attenuated BCoV strains. The phylogenetic analyses revealed the monophyletic status of the BCoVs from France reported here for the first time. Moreover, BCoV exhibits a relative genetic stability when compared to HCoV-OC43 we previously described from the same region. The numerous recombination detected between HCoV-OC43 were much less frequent for BCoV. The analysis points thus to the influence of different evolutive constraints in these two close groups.

Epidemiological basis useful for the control of foot-and-mouth disease.

Although known for many years, foot-and-mouth disease is still able to represent a real threat to many farming economies in the world. The recent 2001 Western European epizootics linked to O PanAsia virus strain can illustrate the fact that many questions are still unanswered in the field of foot-and-mouth epidemiology. It also demonstrates that the increase in international trade, including livestock, animal products and animal food, means an increase in the probability of transmitting, through the same way, some animal diseases, foot-and-mouth included. In our economies, a rapid identification of the virus and a fast elimination of infected, contaminated and even some contact animals are still the key factors to react in front of such a disease.

[Herbivore or carnivore? History of prions]. / Herbivore ou carnivore? Histoire de prions.

Transmissible subacute spongiform encephalopathies have been known for some times in man and in animals, but were considered of minor importance up to the development of the mad cow crisis. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy raises questions about nowadays farming and brings up the issue of cannibalism as a whole and imposed upon an herbivore. Even if the word cannibalism may seem excessive in the case of cattle, it is however true that BSE spreads from cow to cow through their feeding with meat and bone meal contaminated with infected bovine material. More generally this points out the problem of cannibalism among animal species.

First isolation and molecular characterization of foot-and-mouth disease virus in Benin.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals. It is one of the most economically devastating diseases affecting livestock animals. In West Africa, where constant circulation of FMD virus (FMDV) is assumed, very few studies on the characterization of circulating strains have been published. This study describes the first isolation and characterization of FMDV in Benin. FMDV was isolated from 42 samples. Antigen Capture Elisa (Ag-ELISA) and VP1 coding sequence analysis revealed 33 strains of serotype O and 9 strains of serotype A. Phylogenetic analysis of the VP1 sequence revealed two different groups of type O isolates and one group of A isolates. VP1 sequence comparison with the sequences available in the GenBank database revealed a close relationship of the Benin isolates with topotype O of West Africa and with African topotype A of genotype VI. Knowledge of the recent strains circulating in Benin should contribute to better selection of vaccine strains and enable the updating of molecular epidemiology data available for West Africa in general.