Development of a peripheral blood transcriptomic gene signature to predict bronchopulmonary dysplasia.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is the most common lung disease of extreme prematurity, yet mechanisms that associate with or identify neonates with increased susceptibility for BPD are largely unknown. Combining artificial intelligence with gene expression data is a novel approach that may assist in better understanding mechanisms underpinning chronic lung disease and in stratifying patients at greater risk for BPD. The objective of this study is to develop an early peripheral blood transcriptomic signature that can predict preterm neonates at risk for developing BPD. Secondary analysis of whole blood microarray data from 97 very low birth weight neonates on day of life 5 was performed. BPD was defined as positive pressure ventilation or oxygen requirement at 28 days of age. Participants were randomly assigned to a training (70%) and testing cohort (30%). Four gene-centric machine learning models were built, and their discriminatory abilities were compared with gestational age or birth weight. This study adheres to the transparent reporting of a multivariable prediction model for individual prognosis or diagnosis (TRIPOD) statement. Neonates with BPD (n = 62 subjects) exhibited a lower median gestational age (26.0 wk vs. 30.0 wk, P < 0.01) and birth weight (800 g vs. 1,280 g, P < 0.01) compared with non-BPD neonates. From an initial pool (33,252 genes/patient), 4,523 genes exhibited a false discovery rate (FDR) <1%. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) for predicting BPD utilizing gestational age or birth weight was 87.8% and 87.2%, respectively. The machine learning models, using a combination of five genes, revealed AUCs ranging between 85.8% and 96.1%. Pathways integral to T cell development and differentiation were associated with BPD. A derived five-gene whole blood signature can accurately predict BPD in the first week of life.

Comparison of Preterm and Term Wharton's Jelly-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cell Properties in Different Oxygen Tensions.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have shown promise as therapeutic agents in treating morbidities associated with premature birth. MSCs derived from the human umbilical cord are easy to isolate and have low immunogenicity and a robust ability to secrete paracrine factors. To date, there are no studies evaluating preterm versus term umbilical cord tissue-derived MSCs. Therefore, our aim was twofold: (1) to compare stem cell properties in preterm versus term MSCs and (2) to examine the impact of oxygen tension on stem cell behavior. Umbilical cord tissue was obtained from 5 preterm and 5 term neonates. The cells were isolated and characterized as MSCs in accordance with the International Society for Cellular Therapy. We exposed MSCs to different oxygen tensions to examine the impact of environmental factors on cell performance. We studied the following stem cell properties: (i) motility, (ii) proliferation, (iii) senescence, (iv) cell viability, (v) colony-forming unit efficiency, and (vi) inflammatory cytokine expression. Under normoxia (21% O2), cells from preterm and term infants had similar properties. Under hypoxic conditions (1% O2), term MSCs had better cell proliferation; however, cells exposed to hyperoxia (90% O2) had the slowest motility and lowest cell viability (p < 0.05). There was no difference in the expression of senescence or cytokine expression between the groups. The term cells demonstrated more colony-forming efficiency than the preterm cells. In sum, our preliminary findings suggest that MSCs derived from term and preterm umbilical cords have similar characteristics, offering the potential of future autologous/allogeneic MSC transplants in neonates.

Mechanical stretch induces lung α-epithelial Na(+) channel expression.

ABSTRACT During fetal development physiological stretching helps drive lung growth and maturation. At birth, the α-subunit of the alveolar epithelial sodium channel (α-ENaC) is a critical factor in helping to facilitate clearance of lung fluid during the perinatal period. The effects of stretch, however, on α-ENaC expression in the fetal lung have yet to be elucidated. In an effort to explore this question, we used both an in vitro cell culture model that exposes cells to repetitive cyclic stretch (CS) as well as an in vivo preterm animal model of mechanical ventilation (MV). We found that murine lung epithelial (MLE-12) cells exposed to repetitive CS showed a significant rise in α-ENaC mRNA expression. Total and cell-surface protein abundance of α-ENaC were also elevated after 24 h of CS. Stretch-induced increases in α-ENaC expression were suppressed in the presence of either actinomycin D or cycloheximide. Pharmacological inhibition of the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK1/2) did not attenuate stretch-induced increases in α-ENaC protein, whereas inhibition of p38 MAPK or c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) did. In 29-day preterm rabbits, alveolar stretching secondary to postnatal MV markedly elevated fetal lung α-ENaC expression compared to spontaneously breathing counterparts. In summary, our findings indicate that mechanical stretch promotes α-ENaC expression.

Prophylactic Administration of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Does Not Prevent Arrested Lung Development in Extremely Premature-Born Non-Human Primates.

Premature birth is a leading cause of childhood morbidity and mortality and often followed by an arrest of postnatal lung development called bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Therapies using exogenous mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) have proven highly efficacious in term-born rodent models of this disease, but effects of MSC in actual premature-born lungs are largely unknown. Here, we investigated thirteen non-human primates (baboons; Papio spp.) that were born at the limit of viability and given a single, intravenous dose of ten million human umbilical cord tissue-derived MSC per kilogram or placebo immediately after birth. Following two weeks of human-equivalent neonatal intensive care including mechanical ventilation, lung function testing and echocardiographic studies, lung tissues were analyzed using unbiased stereology. We noted that therapy with MSC was feasible, safe and without signs of engraftment when administered as controlled infusion over 15 minutes, but linked to adverse events when given faster. Administration of cells was associated with improved cardiovascular stability, but neither benefited lung structure, nor lung function after two weeks of extrauterine life. We concluded that a single, intravenous administration of MSC had no short- to mid-term lung-protective effects in extremely premature-born baboons, sharply contrasting data from term-born rodent models of arrested postnatal lung development and urging for investigations on the mechanisms of cell-based therapies for diseases of prematurity in actual premature organisms.

Big Data for Tiny Patients: A Precision Medicine Approach to Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is the most common chronic lung disease of extreme prematurity. Despite more than 50 years of research, current treatments are ineffective, and clinicians are largely unable to accurately predict which neonates the condition will develop in. A deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the characteristic arrest in lung development are warranted. Integrating high-fidelity technology from precision medicine approaches may fill this gap and provide the tools necessary to identify biomarkers and targetable pathways. In this review, we describe insights garnered from current studies using omics for BPD prediction and stratification. We conclude by describing novel programs that will integrate multi-omics in efforts to better understand and treat the pathogenesis of BPD. [Pediatr Ann. 2022;51(10):e396-e404.].

Neonatal hyperoxia in mice triggers long-term cognitive deficits via impairments in cerebrovascular function and neurogenesis.

Preterm birth is the leading cause of death in children under 5 years of age. Premature infants who receive life-saving oxygen therapy often develop bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), a chronic lung disease. Infants with BPD are at a high risk of abnormal neurodevelopment, including motor and cognitive difficulties. While neural progenitor cells (NPCs) are crucial for proper brain development, it is unclear whether they play a role in BPD-associated neurodevelopmental deficits. Here, we show that hyperoxia-induced experimental BPD in newborn mice led to lifelong impairments in cerebrovascular structure and function as well as impairments in NPC self-renewal and neurogenesis. A neurosphere assay utilizing nonhuman primate preterm baboon NPCs confirmed impairment in NPC function. Moreover, gene expression profiling revealed that genes involved in cell proliferation, angiogenesis, vascular autoregulation, neuronal formation, and neurotransmission were dysregulated following neonatal hyperoxia. These impairments were associated with motor and cognitive decline in aging hyperoxia-exposed mice, reminiscent of deficits observed in patients with BPD. Together, our findings establish a relationship between BPD and abnormal neurodevelopmental outcomes and identify molecular and cellular players of neonatal brain injury that persist throughout adulthood that may be targeted for early intervention to aid this vulnerable patient population.

Neonatal chlamydial pneumonia induces altered respiratory structure and function lasting into adult life.

Respiratory dysfunction in adults has been correlated with neonatal Chlamydia trachomatis pneumonia in several studies, but a causal association has not been clearly demonstrated. In this study, we examined radial alveolar counts (RACs) by microscopy, and airway and parenchymal lung function using a small animal ventilator in juvenile (5 weeks age) and adult (8 weeks age) BALB/c mice challenged as neonates with Chlamydia muridarum (C. mur) on day 1 or day 7 after birth, representing saccular (human pre-term neonates) and alveolar (human term neonates) stages of lung development, respectively. Pups challenged with C. mur on either day 1 or 7 after birth demonstrated significantly enhanced airway hyperreactivity and lung compliance, both as juveniles (5 weeks age) and adults (8 weeks age), compared with mock-challenged mice. Moreover, mice challenged neonatally with Chlamydia displayed significantly reduced RACs, suggesting emphysematous changes. Antimicrobial treatment during the neonatal infection induced early bacterial clearance and partially ameliorated the Chlamydia-induced lung dysfunction as adults. These results suggest that neonatal chlamydial pneumonia, especially in pre-term neonates, is a cause of respiratory dysfunction continuing into adulthood, and that antimicrobial administration may be partially effective in preventing the adverse respiratory sequelae in adulthood. The results of our studies also emphasize the importance of prenatal screening and treatment of pregnant women for C. trachomatis in order to prevent the infection of neonates.

Oxygen and mechanical ventilation impede the functional properties of resident lung mesenchymal stromal cells.

Resident/endogenous mesenchymal stromal cells function to promote the normal development, growth, and repair of tissues. Following premature birth, the effects of routine neonatal care (e.g. oxygen support and mechanical ventilation) on the biological properties of lung endogenous mesenchymal stromal cells is (L-MSCs) is poorly understood. New Zealand white preterm rabbits were randomized into the following groups: (i) sacrificed at birth (Fetal), (ii) spontaneously breathing with 50% O2 for 4 hours (SB), or (iii) mechanical ventilation with 50% O2 for 4h (MV). At time of necropsy, L-MSCs were isolated, characterized, and compared. L-MSCs isolated from the MV group had decreased differentiation capacity, ability to form stem cell colonies, and expressed less vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA. Compared to Fetal L-MSCs, 98 and 458 genes were differentially expressed in the L-MSCs derived from the SB and MV groups, respectively. Gene ontology analysis revealed these genes were involved in key regulatory processes including cell cycle, cell division, and angiogenesis. Furthermore, the L-MSCs from the SB and MV groups had smaller mitochondria, nuclear changes, and distended endoplasmic reticula. Short-term hyperoxia/mechanical ventilation after birth alters the biological properties of L-MSCs and stimulates genomic changes that may impact their reparative potential.

IL-1 promotes α-epithelial Sodium Channel (α-ENaC) expression in murine lung epithelial cells: involvement of NF-κB.

Intra-amniotic exposure to proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 (IL-1) correlates with a decreased incidence of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in infants following premature birth. At birth, inadequate absorption of fluid from the fetal lung contributes to the onset RDS. Lung fluid clearance is coupled to Na+ transport via epithelial sodium channels (ENaC). In this study, we assessed the effects of IL-1 on the expression of ENaC, particularly the α-subunit which is critical for fetal lung fluid clearance at birth. Cultured mouse lung epithelial (MLE-12) cells were treated with either IL-1α or IL-1ß to determine their effects on α-ENaC expression. Changes in IL-1-induced α-ENaC levels in the presence of IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), cycloheximide, NF-κB inhibitor, and MAP kinase inhibitors were investigated. IL-1α and IL-1ß independently induced a significant increase of α-ENaC mRNA and protein after 24 h compared to untreated cells. IL-1-dependent increases in α-ENaC protein were mitigated by IL-1ra and cycloheximide. IL-1 exposure induced NF-κB binding activity. Attenuation of IL-1-induced NF-κB activation by its inhibitor SN50 decreased α-ENaC protein abundance. Inhibition of ERK 1,2 MAPK significantly decreased both IL-1α and ß-induced α-ENaC protein expression whereas inhibition of p38 MAPK only blocked IL-1ß-induced α-ENaC protein levels. In contrast, IL-1-induced α-ENaC protein levels were unaffected by a c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitor. Our results suggest that in MLE-12 cells, IL-1-induced elevation of α-ENaC is mediated via NF-κB activation and in part involves stimulation of the ERK 1,2 and p38 MAPK signaling pathways.

Regulation of epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) in the salivary cell line SMG-C6.

Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids modulate Na+ transport via epithelial Na+ channels (ENaC). The rat submandibular epithelial cell line, SMG-C6, expresses alpha-ENaC mRNA and protein and exhibits amiloride-sensitive Na+ transport when grown in low-serum (2.5%) defined medium, therefore, we examined the effects of altering the composition of the SMG-C6 cell growth medium on ENaC expression and function. No differences in basal or amiloride-sensitive short-circuit current (Isc) were measured across SMG-C6 monolayers grown in the absence of thyroid hormone, insulin, transferrin, or EGF. In the absence of hydrocortisone, basal and amiloride-sensitive Isc significantly decreased. Similarly, monolayers grown in 10% serum-supplemented medium had lower basal Isc and no response to amiloride. Adding hydrocortisone (1.1 microM) to either the low or 10% serum medium increased basal and amiloride-sensitive Isc, which was blocked by RU486, the glucocorticoid and progesterone receptor antagonist. Aldosterone also induced an increase in alpha-ENaC expression and Na+ transport, which was also blocked by RU486 but not by the mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist spironolactone. Thus, in the SMG-C6 cell line, hydrocortisone and aldosterone increased ENaC expression and basal epithelial Na+ transport. The absence of endogenous ENaC expression in culture conditions devoid of steroids makes the properties of this cell line an excellent model for investigating pathways regulating ENaC expression and Na+ transport.

Induction of serum- and glucocorticoid-induced kinase-1 (SGK1) by cAMP regulates increases in alpha-ENaC.

Alpha-ENaC expression and activity is regulated by a variety of hormones including beta-adrenergic agonists via the second messenger cAMP. We evaluated the early intermediate pathways involved in the up-regulation of SGK1 by DbcAMP and whether SGK1 is a prerequisite for induction of alpha-ENaC expression. Submandibular gland epithelial (SMG-C6) cells treated with DbcAMP (1 mM) induced both SGK1 mRNA and protein expression. DbcAMP-stimulated SGK1 mRNA expression was decreased by actinomycin D and mRNA and protein expressions were attenuated by PKA inhibitors (H-89 and KT5720). Inhibition of PI3-K with either LY294002 or dominant negative PI3-K reduced DbcAMP-stimulated SGK1 protein and mRNA levels, attenuated the phosphorylation of CREB (a cAMP-activated transcription factor) and decreased alpha-ENaC protein levels and Na(+) transport. In addition, the combination of PKA inhibitors with dominant negative PI3-K synergistically inhibited DbcAMP-induced Na(+) transport. Inhibition of SGK1 expression by siRNA decreased but did not obliterate DbcAMP-induced alpha-ENaC expression. Thus, in a cell line which endogenously exhibits minimal alpha-ENaC expression, induction of SGK1 by DbcAMP occurs via the PI3-K and PKA pathways. Increased alpha-ENaC levels and function are partly dependent upon the early induction of SGK1 expression.

Protein kinase A and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways mediate cAMP induction of alpha-epithelial Na+ channels (alpha-ENaC).

A major mechanism for Na+ transport across epithelia occurs through epithelial Na+ channels (ENaC). ENaC is a multimeric channel consisting of three subunits (alpha, beta, and gamma). The alpha-subunit is critical for ENaC function. In specific culture conditions, the rat submandibular gland epithelial cell line (SMG-C6) demonstrates minimal Na+ transport properties and exposure to dibutyryl cAMP (DbcAMP) for up to 48 h caused an elevation of alpha-ENaC mRNA and protein expression and amiloride-sensitive short-circuit current (I(SC)). Here we examined the early signaling pathways evoked by DbcAMP which contribute to the eventual increase in Na+ transport is present. Treatment with either of the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitors KT5720 or H-89 followed by exposure to 1 mM DbcAMP for 24 h markedly attenuated DbcAMP-induced alpha-ENaC protein formation and I(SC). Exposure of SMG-C6 cells to 1 mM DbcAMP induced a rapid, transient phosphorylation of the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB). This response was attenuated in the presence of either KT5720 or H-89. Dominant-negative CREB decreased DbcAMP-induced alpha-ENaC expression. Suppression of the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK 1,2) with PD98059 or the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway with SB203580 reduced DbcAMP-induced alpha-ENaC protein levels in SMG-C6 cells. DbcAMP-induced phosphorylation of CREB was markedly attenuated by PD98059 or SB203580. DbcAMP-induced activation of the either the p38 or the ERK 1,2 MAPK pathways was abolished by either of the PKA inhibitors, H-89 or KT5720. Cross talk between these signaling pathways induced by DbcAMP via the activation of CREB appears to contribute to increased levels of alpha-ENaC observed after 24 h of treatment in SMG-C6 epithelial cells.

IgA modulates respiratory dysfunction as a sequela to pulmonary chlamydial infection as neonates.

Neonatal Chlamydia lung infections are associated with serious sequelae such as asthma and airway hyper-reactivity in children and adults. Our previous studies demonstrated the importance of Th-1 type cytokines, IL-12 and IFN-γ in protection against neonatal pulmonary chlamydial challenge; however, the role of the humoral arm of defense has not been elucidated. We hypothesized that B-cells and IgA, the major mucosal antibody, play a protective role in newborns against development of later life respiratory sequelae to Chlamydia infection. Our studies using neonatal mice revealed that all WT and IgA-deficient (IgA(-/-)) animals survived a sublethal pulmonary Chlamydia muridarum challenge at one day after birth with similar reduction in bacterial burdens over time. In contrast, all B-cell-deficient (µMT) mice succumbed to infection at the same challenge dose correlating to failure to control bacterial burdens in the lungs. Although IgA may not be important for bacterial clearance, we observed IgA(-/-) mice displayed greater respiratory dysfunction 5 weeks post challenge. Specifically, comparative respiratory functional analyses revealed a significant shift upward in P-V loops, and higher dynamic resistance in IgA(-/-) animals. This study provides insight(s) into the protective role of IgA in neonates against pulmonary chlamydial infection induced respiratory pathological sequelae observed later in life.

Mechanical ventilation down-regulates surfactant protein A and keratinocyte growth factor expression in premature rabbits.

Surfactant-associated proteins (SP-A, SP-B, and SP-C) are critical for the endogenous function of surfactant. Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are key regulators of lung development. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of early mechanical ventilation on the expression of these important regulatory proteins in a preterm rabbit model. Premature fetuses were delivered at 29 d of gestation and randomized to necropsy at birth, i.e. no ventilation (NV), spontaneous breathing (SB), or mechanical ventilation (MV) for 16 h. MV animals were further randomized to treatment with dexamethasone (dex). Our findings showed that SB rabbits increased their expression of SP-A mRNA and protein after birth compared with NV controls. MV significantly attenuated this response in the absence of dex. Exposure to dex elevated SP-B mRNA expression in both SB and MV rabbits. KGF protein levels were markedly increased in SB animals compared with MV counterparts. VEGF levels were similar in SB and MV animals, but were significantly increased compared with NV controls. These data suggest that MV alters surfactant-associated protein and growth factor expression, which may contribute to injury in the developing lung.

Cyclic stretch attenuates effects of hyperoxia on cell proliferation and viability in human alveolar epithelial cells.

The treatment of severe lung disease often requires the use of high concentrations of oxygen coupled with the need for assisted ventilation, potentially exposing the pulmonary epithelium to both reactive oxygen species and nonphysiological cyclic stretch. Whereas prolonged hyperoxia is known to cause increased cell injury, cyclic stretch may result in either cell proliferation or injury depending on the pattern and degree of exposure to mechanical deformation. How hyperoxia and cyclic stretch interact to affect the pulmonary epithelium in vitro has not been previously investigated. This study was performed using human alveolar epithelial A549 cells to explore the combined effects of cyclic stretch and hyperoxia on cell proliferation and viability. Under room air conditions, cyclic stretch did not alter cell viability at any time point and increased cell number after 48 h compared with unstretched controls. After exposure to prolonged hyperoxia, cell number and [(3)H]thymidine incorporation markedly decreased, whereas evidence of oxidative stress and nonapoptotic cell death increased. The combination of cyclic stretch with hyperoxia significantly mitigated the negative effects of prolonged hyperoxia alone on measures of cell proliferation and viability. In addition, cyclic stretch resulted in decreased levels of oxidative stress over time in hyperoxia-exposed cells. Our results suggest that cyclic stretch, as applied in this study, can minimize the detrimental effects of hyperoxia on alveolar epithelial A549 cells.

Postnatal glucocorticoids induce alpha-ENaC formation and regulate glucocorticoid receptors in the preterm rabbit lung.

At birth, lung fluid clearance is coupled to Na+ transport through epithelial Na+ channels (ENaC) in the distal lung epithelium. We evaluated the effect of postnatal glucocorticoids (GC) on lung alpha-ENaC expression in preterm 29-day gestational age (GA) fetal rabbits. Postnatal treatment of 29-day GA fetuses with 0.5 mg/kg of dexamethasone (Dex) iv resulted in a 2- and 22-fold increase in lung alpha-ENaC mRNA expression compared with saline-treated fetuses after 8 and 16 h, respectively. Lung alpha-ENaC protein levels in Dex-treated fetuses were also elevated compared with saline-treated counterparts. The extravascular lung water (EVLW)/dry lung tissue weight ratios of 29-day GA fetuses treated with either saline or Dex decreased over 24 h compared with that observed at birth; however, at 24 h, the EVLW/dry lung tissue weight ratios of saline- and Dex-treated fetuses were similar. Dex-induced alpha-ENaC mRNA and protein levels were attenuated by glucocorticoid receptor (GCR) antagonist RU-486 in fetal distal lung epithelial cells isolated from 29-day GA fetuses, indicating that GC-dependent augmentation of lung alpha-ENaC requires the presence of functional GCR. Lung GCR mRNA expression and protein levels were elevated in 29-day GA fetuses compared with fetuses at earlier GA. Exposure of 29-day GA fetuses to Dex for 16 h caused a 2.1-fold increase in lung GCR mRNA expression, but GCR protein levels were decreased in Dex-treated fetuses after 24 h. We conclude that postnatal treatment of preterm 29-day GA fetal rabbits with GC results in an elevation of lung alpha-ENaC accompanied by an autoregulation of pulmonary GCR.