Household Transmission Dynamics of Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2-Infected Children: A Multinational, Controlled Case-Ascertained Prospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection in children is highly prevalent but its acute and chronic implications have been minimally described. METHODS: In this controlled case-ascertained household transmission study, we recruited asymptomatic children <18 years with SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid testing performed at 12 tertiary care pediatric institutions in Canada and the United States. We attempted to recruit all test-positive children and 1 to 3 test-negative, site-matched controls. After 14 days' follow-up we assessed the clinical (ie, symptomatic) and combined (ie, test-positive, or symptomatic) secondary attack rates (SARs) among household contacts. Additionally, post-COVID-19 condition (PCC) was assessed in SARS-CoV-2-positive participating children after 90 days' follow-up. RESULTS: A total of 111 test-positive and 256 SARS-CoV-2 test-negative asymptomatic children were enrolled between January 2021 and April 2022. After 14 days, excluding households with co-primary cases, the clinical SAR among household contacts of SARS-CoV-2-positive and -negative index children was 10.6% (19/179; 95% CI: 6.5%-16.1%) and 2.0% (13/663; 95% CI: 1.0%-3.3%), respectively (relative risk = 5.4; 95% CI: 2.7-10.7). In households with a SARS-CoV-2-positive index child, age <5 years, being pre-symptomatic (ie, developed symptoms after test), and testing positive during Omicron and Delta circulation periods (vs earlier) were associated with increased clinical and combined SARs among household contacts. Among 77 asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2-infected children with 90-day follow-up, 6 (7.8%; 95% CI: 2.9%-16.2%) reported PCC. CONCLUSIONS: Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2-infected children, especially those <5 years, are important contributors to household transmission, with 1 in 10 exposed household contacts developing symptomatic illness within 14 days. Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2-infected children may develop PCC.

Cost and Late Hospital Care of Publicly Insured Children After Appendectomy.

INTRODUCTION: Immediate complications of appendicitis are common, but the prevalence of long-term complications is uncertain. METHODS: We studied all publicly-insured children in the US with uncomplicated or complicated appendicitis in 2018-2019 using administrative claims. The main outcome was late hospital care defined as hospitalization or abdominal procedure within 180 d of an appendicitis discharge, excluding interval appendectomies. Time to late hospital care was evaluated using Cox regression. We evaluated health-care expenditures arising from appendicitis episodes. RESULTS: Among 95,942 children with appendicitis, 5727 (6.0%) had late hospital care, with 5062 requiring rehospitalization and 2012 (2.1%) surgery. The median time to late hospital care was 10 d (interquartile range 4-33). Age under 5 y (compared with >14 y, hazard ratio [HR] 1.88, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.70-2.08), complex chronic conditions (HR 2.35, 95% CI 2.13-2.59), and complicated appendicitis (HR 2.81, 95% CI 2.67, 2.96) were each associated with time to late hospital care. Expenditures over 180 d were a median $6553 and $19,589 respectively in those requiring no late hospital care versus those requiring it (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Late hospital care is uncommon in pediatric appendicitis but is costly. Prevention efforts should be targeted to the youngest, most complex children, and those with complicated appendicitis at presentation.

Evaluation of Insurance Type as a Proxy for Socioeconomic Status in the Pediatric Emergency Department: A Pilot Study.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine whether insurance status can function as a sufficient proxy for socioeconomic status in emergency medicine research by examining the concordance between insurance status and direct socioeconomic status measures in a sample of pediatric patients. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional pilot study of patients aged 5 to 17 years in the emergency department of a quaternary care children's hospital. Socioeconomic status was measured using the highest level of the caregiver's education (low: less than bachelor's degree; high: bachelor's or greater) and previous year household income (low: <$75,000; high: ≥$75,000). We calculated the misclassification rate of insurance status (low: public; high: private) using education and income as reference standards. Results were expressed as percentages with 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: In total, 300 patients were enrolled (median age 11 years, 44% female). Insurance status misclassified 23% (95% CI 18% to 28%) and 14% (95% CI 10% to 19%) of patients when using caregiver education and income, respectively, as reference standards. CONCLUSIONS: Insurance status misclassified socioeconomic status in up to 23% of pediatric patients, as measured by caregivers' education and income. Emergency medicine studies of pediatric patients using insurance as a covariate to adjust for socioeconomic status may need to consider this misclassification and the resulting potential for bias. These findings require confirmation in larger, more diverse samples, including adult patients.

Trends in Respiratory Viral Testing in Pediatric Emergency Departments Following the COVID-19 Pandemic.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To evaluate for increases in the use and costs of respiratory viral testing in pediatric emergency departments (EDs) because of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional study using the pediatric health information system. Eligible subjects were children (90 days to 18 years) who were discharged from a pediatric ED and included in the pediatric health information system from October 2016 through March 2024. To evaluate for changes in the frequency and costs of respiratory viral testing, we performed an interrupted time series analysis across 3 study periods: prepandemic (October 1, 2016 to March 14, 2020), early pandemic (March 15, 2020 to December 31, 2023), and late pandemic (January 1, 2023 to March 31, 2024). RESULTS: We included 15,261,939 encounters from 34 pediatric EDs over the 90-month study period. At least 1 viral respiratory test was performed for 460,826 of 7,311,177 prepandemic encounters (6.3%), 1,240,807 of 5,100,796 early pandemic encounters (24.3%), and 545,696 of 2,849,966 late pandemic encounters (19.1%). There was a positive prepandemic slope in viral testing (0.17% encounters/month; 95% CI 0.17 to 0.18). The early pandemic was associated with a shift change of 4.98% (95% CI 4.90 to 5.07) and a positive slope (0.54% encounters/month; 95% CI 0.54 to 0.55). The late pandemic period was associated with a negative shift (-17.80%; 95% CI -17.90 to -17.70) and a positive slope (0.42% encounters/month; 95% CI 0.41 to 0.42). The slope in testing costs increased from $5,000/month (95% CI $4,200 to $5,700) to $33,000/month (95% CI $32,000 to $34,000) during the early pandemic. CONCLUSION: Respiratory testing and associated costs increased during the COVID-19 pandemic and were sustained despite decreasing incidence of disease. These findings highlight a need for further efforts to clarify indications for viral testing in the ED and efforts to reduce low-value testing.

Trends and hospital practice variation for analgesia for children with sickle cell disease with vaso-occlusive pain episodes: An 11-year analysis.

This cross-sectional analysis of 86,111 visits for sickle cell disease and vaso-occlusive episodes (VOE) in U.S. pediatric emergency departments between 2013 and 2023 shows increased use of NSAIDs, ketamine, and acetaminophen, with unchanged opioid use. Hospitals with a higher volume of VOE visits more frequently administered opioids. BACKGROUND: Vaso-occlusive episodes (VOEs) are a hallmark of sickle cell disease (SCD), leading to frequent emergency department (ED) visits. Effective pain management is crucial, with guidelines recommending routine use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) with opioids, and emerging evidence supporting ketamine use. However, these recommendations are based on low-certainty evidence, and the impact of these guidelines on analgesia use over time remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to analyze trends in analgesia use over an 11-year period in pediatric SCD patients presenting to U.S. EDs with VOE and assess variations in treatment across hospitals. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted using data from the Pediatric Health Information System covering 34 U.S. children's hospitals from January 1, 2013, to December 31, 2023. The primary outcomes were the proportions of visits where opioids, NSAIDs, acetaminophen, and/or ketamine were administered on the first calendar day of the initial visit. Secondary outcomes included the co-administration of NSAIDs with opioids. Logistic and linear regression models were used to assess trends and hospital-level variations. RESULTS: A total of 86,111 ED visits for VOE were analyzed. Opioids were administered in 82 % of encounters, NSAIDs in 72 %, acetaminophen in 17 %, and ketamine in 1 %. Co-administration of NSAIDs with opioids occurred in 59 % of the visits. Among discharged patients, there was a positive trend for NSAID use (slope: 1.68 %/year, 95 % CI: 0.91 %, 2.45 %) and NSAID-opioid co-administration (slope: 1.03 %/year, 95 % CI: 0.37 %, 1.69 %) over time. Acetaminophen use also increased over the study period (slope: 0.99 %/year, 95 % CI: 0.80 %, 1.17 %). In hospitalized patients, there was a significant upward trend for acetaminophen (slope: 1.29 %/year, 95 % CI: 0.69 %, 1.89 %) and ketamine (slope: 0.36 %/year, 95 % CI: 0.27 %, 0.45 %), while opioid use remained unchanged. Significant hospital-level variations were observed, with larger hospitals more likely to administer opioids but less likely to co-administer NSAIDs with opioids compared to medium-volume hospitals. CONCLUSION: Over the past decade, the use of NSAIDs, acetaminophen, and ketamine has increased in the management of VOE in pediatric SCD patients, while opioid use remains consistent. The co-administration of NSAIDs and opioids has also increased, reflecting guideline adherence. Variations in analgesia practices across hospitals underscore the need for standardizing pain management strategies in this population.

Epidemiology of Emergency Department Visits for Children With Clinically Significant Cardiovascular Disease.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study is to determine the epidemiology, cost, and factors associated with hospital admission, deterioration if hospitalized, and mortality for children with a history of clinically significant cardiovascular disease (CVD) presenting to pediatric emergency departments (EDs). STUDY DESIGN: Using the Pediatric Health Information System, we performed a retrospective analysis of ED encounters of children ≤17 years old with clinically significant CVD between 2016 and 2021. Patients were included if they had a cardiovascular complex chronic condition, defined by ICD diagnosis, and procedure codes. We assessed the primary diagnosis, admission rate, ICU transfer rate (as a marker of disease progression), mortality, resource utilization, and costs. We conducted multivariable analyses to identify risk factors for admission, ICU transfer, and mortality. RESULTS: There were 201,551 ED visits (mean 33,592 ± 3354 per year) among 129,938 children with clinically significant CVD. Most ED encounters had a primary diagnosis of a circulatory (21.1%) or respiratory (19.7%) illness. Seventy-six percent of visits had at least one blood test or imaging study conducted. The overall admission rate was 59.7%, with 28.7% admitted to the ICU, and 6.2% transferred to the ICU after the first 24 hours. The median costs for encounters resulting in admission were $13,605 in US 2023 dollars. In multivariable analyses, younger age, a greater number of noncardiac complex chronic conditions, and CVD type were associated with increased odds of admission, ICU transfer after 24 hours, and mortality (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: ED visits for children with clinically significant CVD lead to substantial resource utilization, including frequent hospitalization, ICU level of care, and costs. This baseline data aids in the development of prospective studies to inform the appropriate ED management for children with clinically significant CVD.

Preferences for Management of Pediatric Pneumonia: A Clinician Survey of Artificially Generated Patient Cases.

BACKGROUND: It is unknown which factors are associated with chest radiograph (CXR) and antibiotic use for suspected community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in children. We evaluated factors associated with CXR and antibiotic preferences among clinicians for children with suspected CAP using case scenarios generated through artificial intelligence (AI). METHODS: We performed a survey of general pediatric, pediatric emergency medicine, and emergency medicine attending physicians employed by a private physician contractor. Respondents were given 5 unique, AI-generated case scenarios. We used generalized estimating equations to identify factors associated with CXR and antibiotic use. We evaluated the cluster-weighted correlation between clinician suspicion and clinical prediction model risk estimates for CAP using 2 predictive models. RESULTS: A total of 172 respondents provided responses to 839 scenarios. Factors associated with CXR acquisition (OR, [95% CI]) included presence of crackles (4.17 [2.19, 7.95]), prior pneumonia (2.38 [1.32, 4.20]), chest pain (1.90 [1.18, 3.05]) and fever (1.82 [1.32, 2.52]). The decision to use antibiotics before knowledge of CXR results included past hospitalization for pneumonia (4.24 [1.88, 9.57]), focal decreased breath sounds (3.86 [1.98, 7.52]), and crackles (3.45 [2.15, 5.53]). After revealing CXR results to clinicians, these results were the sole predictor associated with antibiotic decision-making. Suspicion for CAP correlated with one of 2 prediction models for CAP (Spearman's rho = 0.25). Factors associated with a greater suspicion of pneumonia included prior pneumonia, duration of illness, worsening course of illness, shortness of breath, vomiting, decreased oral intake or urinary output, respiratory distress, head nodding, focal decreased breath sounds, focal rhonchi, fever, and crackles, and lower pulse oximetry. CONCLUSIONS: Ordering preferences for CXRs demonstrated similarities and differences with evidence-based risk models for CAP. Clinicians relied heavily on CXR findings to guide antibiotic ordering. These findings can be used within decision support systems to promote evidence-based management practices for pediatric CAP.

Test Characteristics of Cardiac Point-of-Care Ultrasound in Children With Preexisting Cardiac Conditions.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study is to assess diagnostic performance of cardiac point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) performed by pediatric emergency medicine (PEM) physicians in children with preexisting cardiac disease. METHODS: We evaluated the use of cardiac POCUS performed by PEM physicians among a convenience sample of children with preexisting cardiac disease presenting to a tertiary care pediatric ED. We assessed patient characteristics and the indication for POCUS. The test characteristics of the sonologist interpretation for the assessment of both pericardial effusion as well as left ventricular systolic dysfunction were compared with expert POCUS review by PEM physicians with POCUS fellowship training. RESULTS: A total of 104 children with preexisting cardiac disease underwent cardiac POCUS examinations between July 2015 and December 2017. Among children with preexisting cardiac disease, structural defects were present in 72%, acquired conditions in 22%, and arrhythmias in 13% of patients. Cardiac POCUS was most frequently obtained because of chest pain (55%), dyspnea (18%), tachycardia (17%), and syncope (10%). Cardiac POCUS interpretation compared with expert review had a sensitivity of 100% (95% confidence interval [CI], 85.7-100) for pericardial effusion and 100% (95% CI, 71.5-100) for left ventricular systolic dysfunction; specificity was 97.5% (95% CI, 91.3.1-99.7) for pericardial effusion and 98.9% (95% CI, 93.8-99.8) for left ventricular systolic dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS: Cardiac POCUS demonstrates good sensitivity and specificity in diagnosing pericardial effusion and left ventricular systolic dysfunction in children with preexisting cardiac conditions when technically adequate studies are obtained. These findings support future studies of cardiac POCUS in children with preexisting cardiac conditions presenting to the ED.

Management of Pediatric Pneumonia: A Decade After the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America Guideline.

BACKGROUND: Incomplete uptake of guidelines can lead to nonstandardized care, increased expenditures, and adverse clinical outcomes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of the 2011 Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America (PIDS/IDSA) pediatric community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) guideline that emphasized aminopenicillin use and de-emphasized the use of chest radiographs (CXRs) in certain populations. METHODS: This quasi-experimental study queried a national administrative database of children's hospitals to identify children aged 3 months-18 years with CAP who visited 1 of 28 participating hospitals from 2009 to 2021. PIDS/IDSA pediatric CAP guideline recommendations regarding antibiotic therapy, diagnostic testing, and imaging were evaluated. Segmented regression interrupted time series was used to measure guideline-concordant practices with interruptions for guideline publication and the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. RESULTS: Of 315 384 children with CAP, 71 804 (22.8%) were hospitalized. Among hospitalized children, there was a decrease in blood culture performance (0.5% per quarter) and increase in aminopenicillin prescribing (1.1% per quarter). Among children discharged from the emergency department (ED), there was an increase in aminopenicillin prescription (0.45% per quarter), whereas the rate of obtaining CXRs declined (0.12% per quarter). However, use of CXRs rebounded during the COVID-19 pandemic (increase of 1.56% per quarter). Hospital length of stay, ED revisit rates, and hospital readmission rates remained stable. CONCLUSIONS: Guideline publication was associated with an increase of aminopenicillin prescribing. However, rates of diagnostic testing did not materially change, suggesting the need to consider implementation strategies to meaningfully change clinical practice for children with CAP.

Anaphylaxis knowledge gaps and future research priorities: A consensus report.

BACKGROUND: Despite a better understanding of the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and management of patients with anaphylaxis, there remain knowledge gaps. Enumerating and prioritizing these gaps would allow limited scientific resources to be directed more effectively. OBJECTIVE: We sought to systematically describe and appraise anaphylaxis knowledge gaps and future research priorities based on their potential impact and feasibility. METHODS: We convened a 25-member multidisciplinary panel of anaphylaxis experts. Panelists formulated knowledge gaps/research priority statements in an anonymous electronic survey. Four anaphylaxis themed writing groups were formed to refine statements: (1) Population Science, (2) Basic and Translational Sciences, (3) Emergency Department Care/Acute Management, and (4) Long-Term Management Strategies and Prevention. Revised statements were incorporated into an anonymous electronic survey, and panelists were asked to rate the impact and feasibility of addressing statements on a continuous 0 to 100 scale. RESULTS: The panel generated 98 statements across the 4 anaphylaxis themes: Population Science (29), Basic and Translational Sciences (27), Emergency Department Care/Acute Management (24), and Long-Term Management Strategies and Prevention (18). Median scores for impact and feasibility ranged from 50.0 to 95.0 and from 40.0 to 90.0, respectively. Key statements based on median rating for impact/feasibility included the need to refine anaphylaxis diagnostic criteria, identify reliable diagnostic, predictive, and prognostic anaphylaxis bioassays, develop clinical prediction models to standardize postanaphylaxis observation periods and hospitalization criteria, and determine immunotherapy best practices. CONCLUSIONS: We identified and systematically appraised anaphylaxis knowledge gaps and future research priorities. This study reinforces the need to harmonize scientific pursuits to optimize the outcomes of patients with and at risk of anaphylaxis.

Mortality During Readmission Among Children in United States Children's Hospitals.

OBJECTIVE: To identify demographic, clinical, and hospital factors associated with mortality on readmission within 180 days following an inpatient hospitalization. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective cohort study including 33 US children's hospitals in the Pediatric Health Information System from January 2010 to June 2020. Our primary outcome was death during readmission within 180 days of an index hospitalization among children aged 0-18 years. Illness severity during the index hospitalization was defined according to the All Patient-Refined Diagnosis-Related Group-categorized illness severity (ie, minor, moderate, or major/extreme). We performed multivariable logistic regression analysis to identify factors during the index hospitalization associated with mortality during readmission. RESULTS: Among 2 677 111 children discharged, 337 385 (12.6%) were readmitted within 180 days of the index hospitalization and 2913 (0.8%) died during readmission. More than one-quarter (26.2%) of deaths among children who were readmitted and died occurred within 10 days after discharge from the index hospitalization. Factors independently associated with mortality during readmission included multiple complex chronic conditions, index admissions lasting >7 days, moderate or severe/extreme illness during the index hospitalization, and public insurance. Children whose race was reported as Black had greater odds of mortality during readmission compared with children of other races. CONCLUSIONS: Among hospitalized children, several demographic and clinical factors present during index hospitalizations were associated with mortality during readmission. Greater odds of mortality during readmission among children whose race was reported as Black likely reflects disparities in social determinants of health and clinical care. Interventions to reduce mortality during readmission may target high-risk populations in the period immediately following discharge.

Significance of Sonographic Subcentimeter, Subpleural Consolidations in Pediatric Patients Evaluated for Pneumonia.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the rates of radiographic pneumonia and clinical outcomes of children with suspected pneumonia and subcentimeter, subpleural consolidations on point-of-care lung ultrasound. STUDY DESIGN: We enrolled a prospective convenience sample of children aged 6 months to 18 years undergoing chest radiography (CXR) for pneumonia evaluation in a single tertiary-care pediatric emergency department. Point-of-care lung ultrasound was performed by an emergency medicine physician with subsequent expert review. We determined rates of radiographic pneumonia and clinical outcomes in the children with subcentimeter, subpleural consolidations, stratified by the presence of larger (>1 cm) sonographic consolidations. The children were followed prospectively for 2 weeks to identify a delayed diagnosis of pneumonia. RESULTS: A total of 188 patients, with a median age of 5.8 years (IQR, 3.5-11.0 years), were evaluated. Of these patients, 62 (33%) had subcentimeter, subpleural consolidations on lung ultrasound, and 23 (37%) also had larger (>1 cm) consolidations. Patients with subcentimeter, subpleural consolidations and larger consolidations had the highest rates of definite radiographic pneumonia (61%), compared with 21% among children with isolated subcentimeter, subpleural consolidations. Overall, 23 children with isolated subcentimeter, subpleural consolidations (59%) had no evidence of pneumonia on CXR. Among 16 children with isolated subcentimeter, subpleural consolidations and not treated with antibiotics, none had a subsequent pneumonia diagnosis within the 2-week follow-up period. CONCLUSIONS: Children with subcentimeter, subpleural consolidations often had radiographic pneumonia; however, this occurred most frequently when subcentimeter, subpleural consolidations were identified in combination with larger consolidations. Isolated subcentimeter, subpleural consolidations in the absence of larger consolidations should not be viewed as synonymous with pneumonia; CXR may provide adjunctive information in these cases.

Pediatric Melatonin Ingestions - United States, 2012-2021.

Melatonin is an endogenous neurohormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle (1). It is used therapeutically for insomnia in adults and for primary sleep disorders in children (2). Melatonin is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a dietary supplement. Various synthetic melatonin preparations are widely available over the counter (OTC) in the United States with sales increasing from $285 million in 2016 to $821 million in 2020 (3). Children are at increased risk for melatonin exposure because of the supplement's widespread use and growing popularity as a sleep aid. In 2020, melatonin became the most frequently ingested substance among children reported to national poison control centers (4); however, more research is needed to describe the toxicity and outcomes associated with melatonin ingestions in children. This study assessed isolated melatonin ingestions among the pediatric population (defined here as children, adolescents, and young adults aged ≤19 years) during January 1, 2012-December 31, 2021, using the American Association of Poison Control Centers' National Poison Data System (NPDS). During the 10-year study period, 260,435 pediatric melatonin ingestions were reported to NPDS, and the annual number of ingestions increased 530%. In addition, pediatric melatonin ingestions accounted for 4.9% of all pediatric ingestions reported to poison control centers in 2021 compared with 0.6% in 2012. Pediatric hospitalizations and more serious outcomes due to melatonin ingestions increased during the study period, primarily related to an increase in unintentional ingestions among children aged ≤5 years. Five children required mechanical ventilation, and two died. Consumers and health care professionals should be encouraged to report any melatonin product-related adverse events to MedWatch, the FDA's medical product safety reporting program. Public health initiatives should focus on raising awareness of increasing numbers of melatonin ingestions among children and on the development of preventive measures to eliminate this risk.

Acute Care Utilization and Health Care Expenditures in Medicaid-Enrolled Children.

OBJECTIVES: Although recent health care reform efforts have focused on minimizing high cost health care utilization, the relationship between acute care use and health care expenditures among certain vulnerable populations such as Medicaid-insured children remains poorly understood. We sought to evaluate the association between acute care utilization and health care expenditures and to identify characteristics associated with high spending. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of Medicaid-enrolled children 1-21 years old from 1/1/2016 to 12/31/2016. Children were categorized by acute care use (including emergency department and urgent care visits) as 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 or more visits. Our main outcomes were annualized spending, total per-member-per-year spending, and acute care-related per-member-per-year spending. RESULTS: There were 5.1 million Medicaid-enrolled children that comprised the study cohort, accounting for US $32.6 billion in total spending. Children with 4 or more acute care visits were more likely to be younger than 2 years or older than 14 years, female, and have a chronic condition. Children with 4 or more acute care visits consisted of only 4% of the cohort but accounted for 15% (US $4.7 billion) of the total spending. Increasing acute care visits were associated with increasing total annualized spending in adjusted analyses (P < 0.001). This association was disproportionately observed in older age groups and children without chronic medical conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Medicaid spending for children increases with increasing acute care use; this trend was disproportionately observed in older age groups and children without chronic medical conditions. Improved understanding of factors contributing to frequent acute care utilization and disproportionate spending is needed to potentially reduce unnecessary health care costs in these pediatric populations.

Pediatric Emergency Department Testing for Gonorrhea and Chlamydia in Children.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to describe trends in the utilization of nucleic acid amplification (NAAT) testing for gonorrhea and chlamydia in US pediatric emergency departments. Nucleic acid amplification has been recommended over genital culture by the American Academy of Pediatrics and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for children evaluated for sexual abuse. METHODS: We conducted a multicenter study of children aged 12 months to 11 years tested for gonorrhea and chlamydia between 2004 and 2018 at 22 hospitals in the Pediatric Health Information System. We included patients diagnosed with maltreatment concerns and/or genitourinary (GU) symptoms. The primary outcome was prevalence of testing with NAAT, culture, or both. We analyzed groups based on patient sex, as well as diagnoses of maltreatment versus GU symptoms. RESULTS: A total of 36,312 visits were analyzed. Visits were 73.4% girls and 26.6% boys. During the study period, there was an increase in use of NAAT-only testing for girls (49.3% to 94.3%; P < 0.001) and boys (54.5% to 96.1%; P < 0.001). There was a decrease in use of culture alone for girls (40% to 1.6%; P < 0.001) and boys (38.7% to 0.8%; P < 0.001). Use of both tests in the same encounter was higher among children diagnosed with maltreatment than GU symptoms, regardless of sex (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Over a 14-year period, downtrend of culture use with increase in NAAT was observed, suggesting general adherence to evidence-based guidelines. Almost 10% of children diagnosed with maltreatment continued to be tested with culture. This could indicate provider concerns regarding test accuracy, legal admissibility, or lack of test availability.

Use of Cardiac Point-of-Care Ultrasound in the Pediatric Emergency Department.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to describe the test characteristics of cardiac point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) performed by pediatric emergency medicine (PEM) physicians after structured cardiac POCUS training. METHODS: We evaluated the use of clinically indicated cardiac POCUS by PEM physicians in a single tertiary care pediatric emergency department after implementation of a focused cardiac POCUS training curriculum. The test characteristics of the sonologist interpretation were compared with expert POCUS review, by PEM physicians who have completed PEM POCUS fellowship training, for the assessment of both pericardial effusion and left ventricular systolic dysfunction. RESULTS: A total of 1241 cardiac POCUS examinations were performed between July 2015 and December 2017, of which 456 were clinically indicated and underwent expert POCUS review and comprised the study sample. These examinations were performed by 33 different PEM attending sonologists. Chest pain (52%), dyspnea (20%), and tachycardia (18%) were the most common indications for cardiac POCUS. Prevalence of pericardial effusion and global systolic dysfunction based on expert POCUS review were 11% (48/443) and 4% (16/435), respectively. Real-time cardiac POCUS interpretation had a sensitivity and specificity of 100% and 99.5%, respectively, for both pericardial effusion and left ventricular systolic dysfunction when compared with expert POCUS review. CONCLUSIONS: Cardiac POCUS is both sensitive and specific for identifying pericardial effusion and left ventricular systolic dysfunction when performed by PEM attendings with focused training.

Severity grading system for acute allergic reactions: A multidisciplinary Delphi study.

BACKGROUND: There is no widely adopted severity grading system for acute allergic reactions, including anaphylactic and nonanaphylactic reactions, thus limiting the ability to optimize and standardize management practices and advance research. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to develop a severity grading system for acute allergic reactions for use in clinical care and research. METHODS: From May to September 2020, we convened a 21-member multidisciplinary panel of allergy and emergency care experts; 9 members formed a writing group to critically appraise and assess the strengths and limitations of prior severity grading systems and develop the structure and content for an optimal severity grading system. The entire study panel then revised the grading system and sought consensus by utilizing Delphi methodology. RESULTS: The writing group recommended that an optimal grading system encompass the severity of acute allergic reactions on a continuum from mild allergic reactions to anaphylactic shock. Additionally, the severity grading system must be able to discriminate between clinically important differences in reaction severity to be relevant in research while also being intuitive and straightforward to apply in clinical care. Consensus was reached for all elements of the proposed severity grading system. CONCLUSION: We developed a consensus severity grading system for acute allergic reactions, including anaphylactic and nonanaphylactic reactions. Successful international validation, refinement, dissemination, and application of the grading system will improve communication among providers and patients about the severity of allergic reactions and will help advance future research.

Interregional Transfers for Pandemic Surges.

BACKGROUND: Hospital inpatient and intensive care unit (ICU) bed shortfalls may arise due to regional surges in volume. We sought to determine how interregional transfers could alleviate bed shortfalls during a pandemic. METHODS: We used estimates of past and projected inpatient and ICU cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) from 4 February 2020 to 1 October 2020. For regions with bed shortfalls (where the number of patients exceeded bed capacity), transfers to the nearest region with unused beds were simulated using an algorithm that minimized total interregional transfer distances across the United States. Model scenarios used a range of predicted COVID-19 volumes (lower, mean, and upper bounds) and non-COVID-19 volumes (20%, 50%, or 80% of baseline hospital volumes). Scenarios were created for each day of data, and worst-case scenarios were created treating all regions' peak volumes as simultaneous. Mean per-patient transfer distances were calculated by scenario. RESULTS: For the worst-case scenarios, national bed shortfalls ranged from 669 to 58 562 inpatient beds and 3208 to 31 190 ICU beds, depending on model volume parameters. Mean transfer distances to alleviate daily bed shortfalls ranged from 23 to 352 miles for inpatient and 28 to 423 miles for ICU patients, depending on volume. Under all worst-case scenarios except the highest-volume ICU scenario, interregional transfers could fully resolve bed shortfalls. To do so, mean transfer distances would be 24 to 405 miles for inpatients and 73 to 476 miles for ICU patients. CONCLUSIONS: Interregional transfers could mitigate regional bed shortfalls during pandemic hospital surges.

Declines in the Number of Lumbar Punctures Performed at United States Children's Hospitals, 2009-2019.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate trends in lumbar puncture (LP) performance among US children's hospitals to assess how these trends may impact pediatric resident trainee exposure to LP. STUDY DESIGN: We quantified LPs for emergency department (ED) and inpatient encounters at 29 US children's hospitals from 2009 to 2019. LP was defined by either a LP procedure code or cerebrospinal fluid culture billing code. Temporal trends and hospital variation in LP were assessed using logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: A total of 215 030 LPs were performed during the study period (0.8% of all encounters). Twenty six thousand and five hundred twenty three and 16 696 LPs were performed in the 2009 and 2018 academic years, respectively (overall 37.1% reduction, per-year OR, 0.935; 95% CI, 0.922-0.948; P < .001), and the rate of LP decreased from 10.9 per 1000 hospital encounters to 6.0 per 1000 hospital encounters over the same period. CONCLUSIONS: LP rates have declined across US children's hospitals over the past decade, potentially resulting in reduced clinical exposure for pediatric resident trainees. Improved procedural simulation during residency may augment the clinical experience.

Antibiotic Choice and Clinical Outcomes in Ambulatory Children with Community-Acquired Pneumonia.

OBJECTIVES: To describe antibiotic prescribing patterns in ambulatory children with community-acquired pneumonia and to assess the relationship between antibiotic selection and clinical outcomes. STUDY DESIGN: This was a retrospective cohort study of ambulatory Medicaid-enrolled children 0-18 years of age diagnosed with community-acquired pneumonia from 2010 to 2016. The exposure was antibiotic class: narrow-spectrum (aminopenicillins), broad-spectrum (amoxicillin/clavulanate and cephalosporins), macrolide monotherapy, macrolides with narrow-spectrum antibiotics, or macrolides with broad-spectrum antibiotics. The associations between antibiotic selection and the outcomes of subsequent hospitalization and development of severe pneumonia (chest drainage procedure, intensive care admission, mechanical ventilation) were assessed, controlling for measures of illness severity. RESULTS: Among 252 177 outpatient pneumonia visits, macrolide monotherapy was used in 43.2%, narrow-spectrum antibiotics in 26.1%, and broad-spectrum antibiotics in 24.7%. A total of 1488 children (0.59%) were subsequently hospitalized and 117 (0.05%) developed severe pneumonia. Compared with children receiving narrow-spectrum antibiotics, the odds of subsequent hospitalization were higher in children receiving broad-spectrum antibiotics (aOR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.17-1.52) and lower in children receiving macrolide monotherapy (aOR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.55-0.73) and macrolides with narrow-spectrum antibiotics (aOR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.39-0.97). Children receiving macrolide monotherapy had lower odds of developing severe pneumonia than children receiving narrow-spectrum antibiotics (aOR, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.33-0.93). However, the absolute risk difference was <0.5% for all analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Macrolides are the most commonly prescribed antibiotic for ambulatory children with community-acquired pneumonia. Subsequent hospitalization and severe pneumonia are rare. Future efforts should focus on reducing broad-spectrum and macrolide antibiotic prescribing.