One hundred injured patients a day: multicenter emergency room surveillance of trauma in Pakistan.

OBJECTIVES: Injuries increasingly contribute to the global burden of disease in low- and middle-income countries. This study presents results from a large-scale surveillance study on injury from several urban emergency departments (EDs) in Pakistan. The objective is to document the burden of injuries that present to the healthcare system in Pakistan and to test the feasibility of an ED-based injury and trauma surveillance system. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study conducted using active surveillance approach. METHODS: This study included EDs of seven tertiary care hospitals in Pakistan. The data were collected between November 2010 and March 2011. All patients presenting with injuries to the participating EDs were enrolled. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Boards of the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Aga Khan University, and all participating sites. RESULTS: The study recorded 68,390 patients; 93.8% were from the public hospitals. There were seven male for every three female patients, and 50% were 20-39 years of age. About 69.3% were unintentional injuries. Among injuries with a known mechanism (19,102), 51.1% were road traffic injuries (RTIs) and 17.5% were falls. Female, patients aged 60 years or older, patients transferred by ambulance, patients who had RTIs, and patients with intentional injuries were more likely to be hospitalized. CONCLUSION: The study is the first to use standardized methods for regular collection of multiple ED data in Pakistan. It explored the pattern of injuries and the feasibility to develop and implement facility-based systems for injury and acute illness in countries like Pakistan.

Comparative analysis of three prehospital emergency medical services organizations in India and Pakistan.

OBJECTIVES: Strengthened emergency medical services (EMS) are urgently required in South Asia to reduce needless death and disability. Several EMS models have been introduced in India and Pakistan, and research on these models can facilitate improvements to EMS in the region. Our objective was to conduct a cross-case comparative analysis of three EMS organizations in India and Pakistan - GVK EMRI, Aman Foundation and Rescue 1122 - in order to draw out similarities and differences in their models. STUDY DESIGN: Case study methodology was used to systematically explore the organizational models of GVK EMRI (Karnataka, India), Aman Foundation (Karachi, Pakistan), and Rescue 1122 (Punjab, Pakistan). METHODS: Qualitative methods - interviews, document review and non-participant observation - were utilized, and using a process of constant comparison, data were analysed across cases according to the WHO health system 'building blocks'. RESULTS: Emergent themes under each health system 'building block' of service delivery, health workforce, medical products and technology, health information systems, leadership and governance, and financing were described. Cross-cutting issues not applicable to any single building block were further identified. CONCLUSIONS: This cross-case comparison, the first of its kind in low- and middle-income countries, highlights key innovations and lessons, and areas of further research across EMS organizations in India, Pakistan and other resource-poor settings.

The challenges of injuries and trauma in Pakistan: an opportunity for concerted action.

Injuries and trauma are a major cause of mortality and morbidity in low and middle income countries (LMICs). In Pakistan, a low income South Asian developing country, they are among the top ten contributors to disease burden and causes of disabilities, with the majority of the burden falling on younger people in the population. This burden of injuries comes with a high social and economic cost. Several distal and proximal determinants, such as poverty, political instability, frequent natural disasters, and the lack of legislation and enforcement of preventive measures, make the Pakistani population susceptible to injuries. Historically, there has been a low level of investment in the prevention of injuries in Pakistan. Data is limited and while a public sector surveillance project has been initiated in one major urban centre, the major sources of information on injuries have been police and hospital records. Given the cost-effectiveness of injury prevention programs and their success in other LMICs, it is essential that the public sector invest in injury prevention through improving national policies and creating a strong evidence-based strategy while collaborating with the private sector to promote injury prevention and mobilizing people to engage in these programs.

Road safety in the Eastern Mediterranean Region--findings from the Global Road Safety Status Report.

A secondary data analysis using the Global Status Report on Road Safety (GSRRS) was carried out to assess the epidemiology of road traffic injuries (RTIs) and preventive strategies in the Eastern Mediterranean egion (EMR). EMR countries ranked equal first in the world for the highest number of fatalities due to RTIs (32.2 per 100 000 population). The region had about 4% of the world's vehicles with 0.097 registered vehicles per person. The number of injured cases in EMR was 210.1 per 100 000 population. Only 15% of EMR countries had a funded, independent, multisectoral body for road safety. Only 25% had mandatory seat-belt laws for both front-seat and rear-seat passengers, 60% had mandatory helmet laws for both drivers and passengers of motorized two-wheelers and 10% had child restraint laws. Road safety in EMR countries needs more attention and consideration.

Health disparities between Muslim and non-Muslim countries.

We examined differences in health indicators and associated factors across countries according to the proportion of the population who are Muslim. Of 190 UN countries, 48 were classified as Muslim-majority countries (MMC) and 142 as non-MMC. Data on 41 potential determinants of health were obtained from 10 different data sources, and 4 primary outcome measures (male and female life expectancy, maternal mortality ratio and infant mortality rate) were analysed. Annual per capita expenditure on health in MMC was one-fifth that of non-MMC. Maternal mortality and infant mortality rates were twice as high in MMC as non-MMC. Adult literacy rate was significantly higher for non-MMC. Four significant predictors explained 52%-72% of the differences in health outcomes between the 2 groups: gross national income, literacy rate, access to clean water and level of corruption.

Road traffic injuries in Rawalpindi city, Pakistan.

Data on road traffic accident (RTA) injuries and their outcome are scarce in Pakistan. This study assessed patterns of RTA injuries reported in Rawalpindi city using standard surveillance methods. All RTA injury patients presenting to emergency departments of 3 tertiary care facilities from July 2007 to June 2008 were included. RTA injuries (n = 19 828) accounted for 31.7% of all injuries. Among children aged 0-14 years females suffered twice as many RTA injuries as males (21.3% versus 11.4%), whereas this trend reversed for the age group 15-24 years (41.9% versus 21.7%). One-fifth of injuries were either fractures or concussion. Severity and outcome of injuries were worse for the age group 45 years and older. For every road traffic death in Rawalpindi city, 29 more people were hospitalized and 177 more received emergency department care. These results suggest the need for better RTA injury surveillance to identify preventive and control measures for the increasingly high road disease burden in this city.

Estimating deaths and injuries due to road traffic accidents in Karachi, Pakistan, through the capture-recapture method.

BACKGROUND: Road traffic accidents (RTA) are an important yet preventable cause of death and disability in developing countries like Pakistan. Yet accurate epidemiological data on injuries in developing country injuries is often difficult to obtain. We applied the capture-recapture method to estimate the death and injury rates due to RTA in Karachi. METHODS: We applied the two-sample capture-recapture method using traffic police records as one source of capture and the logs of a non-government ambulance service as the second capture source for the same 10 months and 20 days for which 1994 data were available. We generated a conservative adjusted estimate of injuries and deaths by considering entries in the two sources as matched if they reported the same date, time, and place, and at least one of the other matching variables, of name, vehicle registration number, vehicle types or patient outcome. We then compared the estimated rates with the police rates. RESULTS: In 1994 police reported 544 deaths and 793 injuries due to RTA while ambulance records noted 343 deaths and 2048 injuries. The capture-recapture analysis estimated at least 972 (95% CI: 912-1031) deaths and 18,936 (95% CI: 15,507-22,342) injuries attributable to RTA during the study period. Official sources counted only 56% of deaths and 4% of serious injuries. The estimated rates for the year 1994 were 185 injuries and 11.2 deaths per 100,000 population. CONCLUSION: Road traffic injuries and deaths in Karachi are a much more substantial health problem than is evident from official statistics.

Laparoscopic appraisal of infertility and pelvic pain in Pakistani women: a 5 years audit.

Five hundred and nine Laparoscopic examinations performed between 1987-91, (147 procedures for evaluation of gynaecologic pelvic pain and 313 for infertility) revealed ectopic pregnancy (27%), twisted ovarian cyst (18%) and acute pelvic inflammatory disease (14%) in cases of acute gynaecologic pain, and endometriosis (17%) and chronic pelvic inflammatory disease (16%) in chronic pelvic pain. Adhesions (20%), tubal block (15%), endometriosis (9%) and polycystic ovary (7%) were common findings in cases of infertility. These data support the usefulness of this minimally invasive procedure in accurate diagnosis of gynaecological disorders and provides insight into the spectra of diseases seen in Pakistani women with pelvic pain and infertility.

Anaphylaxis: incidence, presentation, causes and outcome in patients in a tertiary-care hospital in Karachi, Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Anaphylaxis is a potentially fatal condition requiring immediate resuscitation. Data regarding the epidemiology of anaphylaxis are limited and inconsistent. A reason for the variability was unavailability of a universally acceptable case definition till 2005. We reviewed cases using this new definition AIM: To review the incidence, clinical presentation, cause and outcome of anaphylaxis at a tertiary-care centre in a low-income country. DESIGN: Retrospective, case series METHODS: Chart review of all patients discharged from Aga Khan University Hospital between January 1988 and December 2012 (24 years) with anaphylaxis definition as per second National Institute of Allergy and Infection disease/Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network Symposium RESULTS: Total of 129 cases were found with mean age of 41.6 years (SD 18.8). Majority of patients had cutaneous features (76.7%), followed by respiratory (68.9%), cardiac (64.3%) and gastrointestinal (20.9%) symptoms, respectively. About 22.4% of patients had positive history for allergens out of which 31% (n = 9) were exposed to the same allergens. The common causes identified for anaphylaxis were drugs (60.5%), food (16.3%) and intravenous contrast (10.9%), respectively. Only 22.5% of cases received epinephrine as a part of their initial management. In four patients (3.1%) the cause of death was attributed to anaphylaxis. CONCLUSION: Anaphylaxis is a rare but life-threatening condition. Though cutaneous features are most common, their absence does not exclude the diagnosis. Drugs were the most common cause and epinephrine was not commonly used as first-line agent for its management.

Patterns of violence in Karachi, Pakistan.

OBJECTIVES: Government reports on violence in developing countries are almost universally based upon police data, which are typically incomplete and unreliable. Violence in Karachi was evaluated using ambulance service, not police, records. SETTING: Karachi, Pakistan. METHODOLOGY: The study was based on a case series of persons suffering from intentional injuries and transported by Edhi, the largest emergency service in Karachi, between October 1993 and January 1996. Main outcome variables were injury and death rates. RESULTS: Edhi Ambulance Service transported 4,091 intentionally injured persons during the 29 month period from October 1993 to January 1996. Ninety five per cent (n=3,864) were males; 74% (n=2,823) were 20 to 40 years of age, and 2,400 (58%) died before reaching the hospital. Firearms were the most common mode of injury (n=3,396, 83%). Forty six per cent (n= 1,828) of violent injuries occurred in four neighborhoods of Karachi--22% in Korangi (n= 884) and 8% each in Orangi (n=337), Malir Colony (n=307), and Nazimabad (n=300). On the 32 days when a political strike was called, more people were injured (mean = 10.4 v 5.0 persons, p=0.01) and killed (mean 6.6 v 3.9 persons, p<0.01) compared with days without a political strike. CONCLUSION: Violence is a major public health problem in Karachi, affecting predominantly wage earners. At least some of the violence is rooted within the political system. Detailed study of the causes of violence that explains the role that political and ethnic tensions play, may suggest strategies to lessen the toll of violence.

Emergency medical services and cultural determinants of an emergency in Karachi, Pakistan.

OBJECTIVES: The study was conducted to understand the prehospital system in Karachi, the mode of transport that adult inpatients use to reach the emergency departments (EDs), and the barriers to the use of ambulances. METHODS: The study consisted of two parts. The first part involved interviewing the administrators of major ambulance services in Karachi. The second part consisted of a structured interview of randomly selected adult inpatients admitted to one government and one private hospital. RESULTS: Seven ambulance service administrators were interviewed. The interviews revealed that ambulances in Karachi are mainly involved in transporting patients from hospital to hospital or to home. A large number of calls are for transporting dead bodies. A total of 92 patients were interviewed (58 male, 34 female). Admission complaints included abdominal pain (22), blunt trauma (11), penetrating trauma (3), chest pain (6), shortness of breath (4), hematemesis (3), acute focal weakness (4), high fever (4), and other (32). The most common mode of transport to the ED was taxi (53, 58%), followed by private car (21, 23%). Specific reasons for not using ambulances included a perception that the patient was not sick enough (34, 45%), slow response of the ambulance services (17, 23%), not knowing how to find one (8, 11%), and the high cost (6, 8%). CONCLUSION: In case of a medical emergency, most people in Karachi do not use ambulances. The reasons for this low usage include not only poor accessibility, but also cultural barriers and lack of education in recognition of danger signs.

Injuries among children in Karachi, Pakistan--what, where and how.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the epidemiology of injuries among children in Karachi, Pakistan. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective case series. METHODS: Data on children aged < or =15 years who were injured between October 1993 and January 1996 were extracted from the logs of the main provider of emergency medical transportation, and were classified according to the World Health Organization's basic data set for information on injuries. RESULTS: We identified 1320 cases of injuries in children < or =15 years old. The major causes were: motor vehicle crashes (MVC) (80%), falls other than from vehicles (5%), burns (5%) and drowning (3%). One in six of these children (15%) died either at the scene of the accident or during transportation to the hospital. The majority of deaths were either due to MVCs (67%) or drowning (18%) Large vehicles (buses, minibuses and trucks) were involved in 54% of all childhood road traffic injuries. Almost one-third (33%) of burns took place in the kitchen at home, and half (51%) of all drowning cases occurred in the sea. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of children transported by the ambulance service were male and were victims of MVCs. Prevention efforts aimed at stricter enforcement of driving laws and family/child education geared towards pedestrian safety could potentially reduce morbidity and mortality. This study also highlights the role of the prehospital transport system in injury surveillance.

Road safety in the Eastern Mediterranean Region -findings from the Global Road Safety Status Report

A secondary data analysis using the Global Status Report on Road Safety [GSRRS] was carried out to assess the epidemiology of road traffic injuries [RTIs] and preventive strategies in the Eastern Mediterranean Region [EMR]. EMR countries ranked equal first in the world for the highest number of fatalities due to RTIs [32.2 per 100 000 population]. The region had about 4% of the world's vehicles with 0.097 registered vehicles per person. The number of injured cases in EMR was 210.1 per 100 000 population. Only 15% of EMR countries had a funded, independent, multisectoral body for road safety. Only 25% had mandatory seat-belt laws for both front-seat and rear-seat passengers, 60% had mandatory helmet laws for both drivers and passengers of motorized two-wheelers and 10% had child restraint laws. Road safety in EMR countries needs more attention and consideration

Road traffic injuries in Rawalpindi city, Pakistan

Data on road traffic accident [RTA] injuries and their outcome are scarce in Pakistan. This study assessed patterns of RTA injuries reported in Rawalpindi city using standard surveillance methods. All RTA injury patients presenting to emergency departments of 3 tertiary care facilities from July 2007 to June 2008 were included. RTA injuries [n=19 828] accounted for 31.7% of all injuries. Among children aged 0-14 years females suffered twice as many RTA injuries as males [21.3% versus 11.4%], whereas this trend reversed for the age group 15-24 years [41.9% versus 21.7%]. One-fifth of injuries were either fractures or concussion. Severity and outcome of injuries were worse for the age group 45 years and older. For every road traffic death in Rawalpindi city, 29 more people were hospitalized and 177 more received emergency department care. These results suggest the need for better RTA injury surveillance to identify preventive and control measures for the increasingly high road disease burden in this city

Health disparities between Muslim and non-Muslim countries

We examined differences in health indicators and associated factors across countries according to the proportion of the population who are Muslim. Of 190 UN countries, 48 were classified as Muslim-majority countries [MMC] and 142 as non-MMC. Data on 41 potential determinants of health were obtained from 10 different data sources, and 4 primary outcome measures [male and female life expectancy, maternal mortality ratio and infant mortality rate] were analysed. Annual per capita expenditure on health in MMC was one-fifth that of non-MMC. Maternal mortality and infant mortality rates were twice as high in MMC as non-MMC. Adult literacy rate was significantly higher for non-MMC. Four significant predictors explained 52%-72% of the differences in health outcomes between the 2 groups: gross national income, literacy rate, access to clean water and level of corruption