Critical Thinking, Formation, and Change.

In this paper, we propose an application of critical thinking (CT) to real-world problems, taking into account personal well-being (PB) and lifelong formation (FO). First, we raise a substantial problem with CT, which is that causal explanation is of little importance in solving everyday problems. If we care about everyday problems, we must treat the identification of causal relationships as a fundamental mechanism and action as a form of solution once the origin of the problem is unequivocally known. Decision-making and problem-solving skills should be the execution of the causal explanations reached. By acting this way, we change reality and achieve our goals, which are none other than those imposed by our PB. However, to achieve changes or results, we must have these fundamental competencies in CT, and these are not innate; we must acquire and develop them, that is, we must train ourselves to have CT competencies according to the demands of today's world. Finally, in this paper we propose a causal model that seeks to identify and test the causal relationships that exist between the different factors or variables that determine the CT-PB-FO relationship. We present some results on the relevance of causality and how to effectively form and address real-world problems from causality. However, there are still questions to be clarified that need to be investigated in future studies.

Relation between metacognitive strategies, motivation to think, and critical thinking skills.

Critical thinking is a complex reasoning skill, and even though it is hard to reach a consensus on its definition, there is agreement on it being an eminently cognitive skill. It is strongly related with reflective and metacognitive skills, as well as attitudinal or motivational aspects, although no model has yet been able to integrate these three elements. We present herein the preliminary results of a study seeking to establish these relations, in a sample of Chilean university students. 435 students from three universities participated, of which 88 were men, 333 were women, and 14 did not indicate their gender. Their ages ranges between 18 and 51 years old (M = 21, SD = 3.09). Three instruments were applied, one to measure metacognitive strategies, one to measure motivation to critical thinking, and a third to measure critical thinking skills. The relation was analyzed via structural equations. The results show a positive, strong, and significant relation between metacognition and motivation to think. However, only a weak significant relation was observed between motivation to think and critical thinking, and no direct relation was found between metacognition and critical thinking. We hypothesize a significant but moderate relation between the variables, where metacognition influences motivation to think, which in turn influences critical thinking skills. Factors are discussed which could negatively affect the studied relations, as well as the importance of generating integrated models between the three variables, as they would show a theoretical and empirical link.

Critical Thinking: The ARDESOS-DIAPROVE Program in Dialogue with the Inference to the Best and Only Explanation.

In our daily lives, we are often faced with the need to explain various phenomena, but we do not always select the most accurate explanation. For example, let us consider a "toxic" relationship with physical and psychological abuse, where one of the partners is reluctant to end it. Explanations for this situation can range from emotional or economic dependency to irrational hypotheses such as witchcraft. Surprisingly, some people may turn to the latter explanation and consequently seek ineffective solutions, such as visiting a witch doctor instead of a psychologist. This choice of an inappropriate explanation can lead to actions that are not only ineffective but potentially harmful. This example underscores the importance of inference to the best explanation (IBE) in everyday decision making. IBE involves selecting the hypothesis that would best explain the available body of data or evidence, a process that is crucial to making sound decisions but is also vulnerable to bias and errors of judgment. Within this context, the purpose of our article is to explore how the IBE process and the selection of appropriate explanations impact decision making and problem solving in real life. To this end, we systematically analyze the role of IBE in the ARDESOS-DIAPROVE program, evaluating how this approach can enhance the teaching and practice of critical thinking.

Assessing higher education students' critical thinking with the PENCRISAL test - Portuguese short version: a psychometric study.

The development of critical thinking in higher education is fundamental, preparing students to think well, find explanations, make decisions and solve problems. Given the importance of its promotion, its assessment is crucial, since the two are inseparable. Moreover, the number of instruments that are validated to assess critical thinking in the Portuguese language and culture are scarce. We present the validation psychometric study of the PENCRISAL test (short version) to the Portuguese language, a critical thinking assessment test for higher education students, designed and validated in Spain (full and short version), which presents adequate reliability and validity psychometric characteristics to assess key-dimensions of critical thinking. A sample of 225 Portuguese higher education students from three universities (two public and one private) performed a reduced version of the PANCRISAL test. The results obtained allowed replicating the Spanish reduced version in Portugal (only changing one of the six items), and the confirmatory factorial analysis permits to identify two factors intercorrelated, legitimizing the combination of the six items in a global score. This short version can be used as a screening test, and its potential is pointed out to assess students critical thinking to support teaching and research in higher education.

Metacognitive Strategies and Development of Critical Thinking in Higher Education.

More and more often, we hear that higher education should foment critical thinking. The new skills focus for university teaching grants a central role to critical thinking in new study plans; however, using these skills well requires a certain degree of conscientiousness and its regulation. Metacognition therefore plays a crucial role in developing critical thinking and consists of a person being aware of their own thinking processes in order to improve them for better knowledge acquisition. Critical thinking depends on these metacognitive mechanisms functioning well, being conscious of the processes, actions, and emotions in play, and thereby having the chance to understand what has not been done well and correcting it. Even when there is evidence of the relation between metacognitive processes and critical thinking, there are still few initiatives which seek to clarify which process determines which other one, or whether there is interdependence between both. What we present in this study is therefore an intervention proposal to develop critical thinking and meta knowledge skills. In this context, Problem-Based Learning is a useful tool to develop these skills in higher education. The ARDESOS-DIAPROVE program seeks to foment critical thinking via metacognition and Problem-Based Learning methodology. It is known that learning quality improves when students apply metacognition; it is also known that effective problem-solving depends not only on critical thinking, but also on the skill of realization, and of cognitive and non-cognitive regulation. The study presented hereinafter therefore has the fundamental objective of showing whether instruction in critical thinking (ARDESOS-DIAPROVE) influences students' metacognitive processes. One consequence of this is that critical thinking improves with the use of metacognition. The sample was comprised of first-year psychology students at Public University of the North of Spain who were undergoing the aforementioned program; PENCRISAL was used to evaluate critical thinking skills and the Metacognitive Activities Inventory (MAI) for evaluating metacognition. We expected an increase in critical thinking scores and metacognition following this intervention. As a conclusion, we indicate actions to incentivize metacognitive work among participants, both individually via reflective questions and decision diagrams, and at the interactional level with dialogues and reflective debates which strengthen critical thinking.

¿Puede ser evaluado el pensamiento crítico de forma breve? / Pode o pensamento crítico ser avaliado de forma breve? / Can critical thinking be briefly assessed?

El objetivo de la investigación ha sido validar una versión breve de la prueba completa de pensamiento crítico (PC) PENCRISAL, en español y portugués. Aquí se presenta la primera. Esta versión breve consta de 2 factores, con 3 ítems cada uno. Un factor evalúa argumentación general, y el otro las formas de razonamiento más empleadas a diario. Además, ambos factores evalúan indirectamente la toma de decisiones y la solución de problemas, gracias a la naturaleza de los ítems, en los que se plantean problemas cotidianos que se deben resolver y, en ocasiones, hay que tomar decisiones. El análisis factorial confirmatorio nos ofrece índices de ajuste adecuados que avalan la estructura de la versión breve del test presentado. Los coeficientes de fiabilidad y validez son razonablemente robustos, lo que hace que esta prueba sirva a los objetivos de investigación establecidos (AU).

O objetivo do nosso estudo foi validar uma versão breve do Teste Completo de Pensamento Crítico (PC) PENCRISAL, em espanhol e português. Aqui apresentamos o primeiro. Esta versão resumida consiste em 2 fatores, com 3 itens cada. Um fator avalia a argumentação geral e o outro as formas de raciocínio mais utilizadas no dia a dia. Além disso, ambos os fatores avaliam indiretamente a tomada de decisão e a resolução de problemas, graças à natureza dos itens, nos quais se levantam problemas diários que devem ser resolvidos e para os quais, às vezes, devem ser tomadas decisões. A análise fatorial confirmatória nos oferece índices adequados de ajustamento que sustentam a estrutura da versão resumida do teste apresentado. Os coeficientes de confiabilidade e validade são razoavelmente robustos, o que faz com que este teste sirva para os objetivos de investigação declarados (AU).

The aim of our study was to validate a short version of the PENCRISAL complete critical thinking test, in Spanish and Portuguese. Here we present the first. This short version consists of 2 factors, with 3 items each. One factor assesses general argumentation, and the other the forms of reasoning most used on a daily basis. In addition, both factors indirectly evaluate decision-making and problem solving, thanks to the nature of the items, in which daily problems are raised that must be solved and for which decisions must sometimes be made. The confirmatory factor analysis offers us solid and consistent indices that support the structure of the short version of the test presented. The reliability and validity coefficients are reasonably robust, as to make this test serve very well for the stated objectives (AU).

Propiedades psicométricas de la adaptación peruana de la prueba de pensamiento crítico PENCRISAL / Psychometric properties of Peruvian adaptation of the critical thinking test PENCRISAL / Propriedades psicométricas da adaptação peruana de pensamento crítico teste PENCRISAL

El objetivo principal de este estudio fue estudiar, en población peruana, las propiedades psicométricas de la prueba de pensamiento crítico, PENCRISAL, desarrollada y validada originalmente en población española. Participaron respondiendo voluntariamente la prueba 422 estudiantes de Ciencias e Ingeniería de una universidad peruana. Se analizó el nivel de fiabilidad con el alfa de Cronbach; la fiabilidad interjueces con coeficientes de concordancia Kappa de Cohen para cada uno de los ítems; la validez de constructo con Análisis Factorial de Componentes Principales, método Varimax y la validez divergente mediante el estudio de correlaciones con otras pruebas a través del coeficiente de Pearson. Los resultados obtenidos permiten concluir que el test PENCRISAL reúne los requisitos psicométricos necesarios para la evaluación de habilidades de pensamiento crítico en población peruana...

The main objective of this study was to study, in Peruvian population, the psychometric properties of the critical thinking test, PENCRISAL, originally developed and validated in Spanish population. 422 students of Science and Engineering of a Peruvian university participated voluntarily answering the test. Reliability was analyzed with Cronbach's alpha; interrater reliability was studied by mean of Cohen's Kappa coefficients for each of the items; construct validity was analyzed with Factor Analysis of Principal Components, Varimax method. Finally, divergent validity was studied by mean of the correlations with other tests through Pearson coefficient. It is concluded that PENCRISAL test fits with the psychometric requirements for the assessment of critical thinking skills in Peruvian population...

O objetivo principal deste trabalho foi estudar, em população peruana, as propriedades psicométricas do teste de pensamento crítico, PENCRISAL, originalmente desenvolvida e validada na população espanhola. Respondendo o teste participaram voluntariamente 422 estudantes de Ciência e Engenharia de uma universidade peruana. O nível de confiabilidade foi analisada com alfa de Cronbach; a confiabilidade inter-juizes foi analisada com coeficientes Kappa de Cohen para cada um dos itens; a validade do construto foi analisada por meio da análise fatorial de componentes principais, método Varimax. Finalmente, a validade divergente foi analisada por meio do estudo de correlações com outros testes utilizando o coeficiente de Pearson. Concluí-se que o teste PENCRISAL tem os requisitos psicométricos necessários para a avaliação de habilidades de pensamento crítico na população peruana...

Propiedades psicométricas de la adaptación peruana de la prueba de pensamiento crítico PENCRISAL / Psychometric properties of Peruvian adaptation of the critical thinking test PENCRISAL / Propriedades psicométricas da adaptação peruana de pensamento crítico teste PENCRISAL

El objetivo principal de este estudio fue estudiar, en población peruana, las propiedades psicométricas de la prueba de pensamiento crítico, PENCRISAL, desarrollada y validada originalmente en población española. Participaron respondiendo voluntariamente la prueba 422 estudiantes de Ciencias e Ingeniería de una universidad peruana. Se analizó el nivel de fiabilidad con el alfa de Cronbach; la fiabilidad interjueces con coeficientes de concordancia Kappa de Cohen para cada uno de los ítems; la validez de constructo con Análisis Factorial de Componentes Principales, método Varimax y la validez divergente mediante el estudio de correlaciones con otras pruebas a través del coeficiente de Pearson. Los resultados obtenidos permiten concluir que el test PENCRISAL reúne los requisitos psicométricos necesarios para la evaluación de habilidades de pensamiento crítico en población peruana.(AU)

The main objective of this study was to study, in Peruvian population, the psychometric properties of the critical thinking test, PENCRISAL, originally developed and validated in Spanish population. 422 students of Science and Engineering of a Peruvian university participated voluntarily answering the test. Reliability was analyzed with Cronbach's alpha; interrater reliability was studied by mean of Cohen's Kappa coefficients for each of the items; construct validity was analyzed with Factor Analysis of Principal Components, Varimax method. Finally, divergent validity was studied by mean of the correlations with other tests through Pearson coefficient. It is concluded that PENCRISAL test fits with the psychometric requirements for the assessment of critical thinking skills in Peruvian population.(AU)

O objetivo principal deste trabalho foi estudar, em população peruana, as propriedades psicométricas do teste de pensamento crítico, PENCRISAL, originalmente desenvolvida e validada na população espanhola. Respondendo o teste participaram voluntariamente 422 estudantes de Ciência e Engenharia de uma universidade peruana. O nível de confiabilidade foi analisada com alfa de Cronbach; a confiabilidade inter-juizes foi analisada com coeficientes Kappa de Cohen para cada um dos itens; a validade do construto foi analisada por meio da análise fatorial de componentes principais, método Varimax. Finalmente, a validade divergente foi analisada por meio do estudo de correlações com outros testes utilizando o coeficiente de Pearson. Concluí-se que o teste PENCRISAL tem os requisitos psicométricos necessários para a avaliação de habilidades de pensamento crítico na população peruana.(AU)