Patterns of Gender Development Across Intersections of Age, Gender, and Ethnicity-Race.

Two components of gender identity are gender similarity, how one's self-concept relates to the major gender collectives (i.e., female, male), and felt pressure to conform to gender norms. The development of these components across ages and contexts has been understudied. The focus of this study was to examine variations in gender similarity and felt pressure across multiple intersecting contexts: developmental stage, gender, and ethnic-racial group. Six data sets were harmonized and means were compared across 2628 participants (51% girls, 49% boys) from four different developmental cohorts (childhood n = 678, early adolescence n = 1322, adolescence n = 415, and young adulthood n = 213) from diverse ethnic-racial backgrounds (45% White, 23% Latinx/Hispanic, 11% Black/African-American, 7% Asian-American, 5% American Indian, and 5% Multiracial). Results revealed nuanced patterns: Gender intensification was supported in early adolescence, primarily for boys. Young adult men reported lower levels of pressure and gender typicality than younger boys, but young adult women's levels were generally not different than younger girls. Surprisingly, young adult women's levels of own-gender similarity and pressure from parents were higher than adolescent girls. Expectations of gender differences in gender typicality and felt pressure were supported for all ages except young adults, with higher levels for boys. Finally, there were more similarities than differences across ethnic-racial groups, though when there were differences, minoritized participants reported heightened gender typicality and pressure (largely accounted for by higher scores for Black and Latinx participants and lower scores for White and Multiracial participants). These results add to what is understood about contextually dependent gender development.

Trajectories of parents' gendered play attitudes during early childhood and implications for children's gender development.

This study examined associations between parents' gendered attitudes about play and children's gender development. The sample was 501 families from a large US city followed annually for 4 years (501 mothers, 383 fathers; 69% White, 16% Latinx, 8% African American; children Mage = 5.67 months, 53% boys). Latent trajectories examined change in parents' attitudes toward same- and other-gender play during first 4 years of the child's life. On a subsample (n = 252), trajectories were examined in relation to children's later gender-typed preferences and gender constancy. Parents grew more gender-flexible in their attitudes, particularly parents of boys. Trajectories reflecting more stereotypic attitudes showed some associations (small in magnitude) with children's gender-typed preferences and gender constancy by age 4.

Main and interactive effects of discrimination, parent racial/ethnic socialization, and internalizing symptomology on BIPOC teens' ethnic-racial identity.

Research suggests that BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, People of Color) adolescents have the best developmental outcomes when strong, positive ethnic-racial identity (ERI) is acknowledged and embraced. This study investigated whether discrimination, internalizing symptomology, parent socialization, and/or interactions of these variables were associated with adolescent ERI, specifically in exploration, resolution, and affirmation, to illuminate nuanced ways BIPOC youth can achieve positive ERI. Recruited from third-party research panels, surveyed participants were adolescents (Mage = 15.28; 51.6% male) of diverse ethnic/racial groups and socioeconomic backgrounds from all regions of the United States. Overall, results showed that there were four significant main effects on ERI: a negative relation between internalizing symptomology and exploration, a positive relation between parent socialization and exploration, a positive relation between parent socialization and resolution, and a negative relation between internalizing symptomology and affirmation. There were also two significant interactive effects such that (1) discrimination had a stronger negative relation with affirmation under condition of high internalizing, and (2) parent socialization had a stronger positive relation with affirmation under condition of high internalizing. Results show development of ERI in adolescence is subject to multiple, interactive influences. Main and interactive effects highlight the contextual role that mental health implicates for youth of color. Implications for parents and practitioners are discussed.

Endorsement of Masculine-Typed Behaviors Decreases During Middle Adolescence: The Contextualizing Role of Peer Experiences for Adolescents Living in the United States.

While more research is emerging about the development of masculinity during adolescence, not much is known about how masculine-type behaviors develop over time in middle to late adolescence within the context of friendships and peer experiences. This study examined trajectories of masculine-typed behavior from ages 14 to 17. Multilevel modeling was used to account for cross-time and within-time variability in masculine-typed behavior and examined the role of positive and negative peer experiences in predicting this variability. This was done in a sample of 334 U.S. adolescents (51% boys; 50% White, 19% Black, 15% Latina/o/e). At the between-person level, boys and girls decreased in masculine-typed behavior over time. At the within-person level, negative peer experiences predicted fluctuations toward greater masculine-typed behavior, whereas friend support predicted fluctuations toward less masculine-typed behavior. Adolescence is a key period for navigating masculinity norms, and peer experiences are a key context for the development of masculine-typed behavior.

Associations Between Adolescents' Antisocial Behavior, Conflict Management Styles, and Romantic Relationship Breakup: An Observational Study.

Adolescents' antisocial behavior and negative conflict management styles are each associated with adverse romantic relationship outcomes, yet little research exists on their associations. We investigated whether adolescents' antisocial behavior was associated with conflict management styles, and whether it predicted breakup 3 months later. In total, 91 adolescent couples (Mage = 16.43, SD = 0.99; 41.2% Hispanic/Latinx) participated in videotaped conflict discussions coded for negotiation, coercion, and avoidance. Actor-partner interdependence models suggest adolescents' antisocial behavior is associated with decreased use of negotiation (couple pattern) and increased use of coercion (actor pattern). No significant associations were found for avoidance. Neither antisocial behavior nor conflict management styles predicted breakup. Findings are discussed in light of the unique developmental importance of adolescents' romantic relationships.

A Person-Centered Analysis of Adolescent Multicultural Socialization Niches and Academic Functioning.

Despite the growing cultural diversity worldwide, there is scarce research on how socialization processes prepare youth to respond to increasing multicultural demands and the degree to which these socialization opportunities inform youth academic functioning. This study used a person-centered approach to identify profiles or niches based on the degree and consistency of multicultural socialization experiences across school, peer, and family settings and to examine the associations between identified niches and markers of academic functioning (i.e., emotional and behavioral academic engagement, academic aspirations and expectations) in a sample of adolescents (N = 717; Mage = 13.73 years). Participants (49.9% girls) were from the U.S. Southwest and represented multiple ethno-racial backgrounds (31.8% Hispanic/Latinx, 31.5% Multiethnic, 25.7% White, 7.3% Black or African American, 1.4% Asian American or Pacific Islander, 1.4% American Indian or Alaska Native, and 1% Arab, Middle Eastern, or North African). Six distinct multicultural socialization niches were identified. Three niches had similar patterns across school-peer-family but ranged in the degree of socialization. The cross-setting similar higher socialization niche (Niche 6) demonstrated greater socialization than the cross-setting similar moderate (Niche 5) and lower socialization (Niche 4) niches, which had moderate and lower socialization, respectively. Three niches demonstrated cross-setting dissimilarity which ranged in the type of cross-setting contrast and the degree of socialization. The cross-setting dissimilar school contrast socialization niche (Niche 3) had greater dissimilarities between socialization opportunities in the school setting compared to the peer and family settings and demonstrated the lowest levels of socialization of all niches. The other two niches, the cross-setting dissimilar peer contrast (Niche 1) and greater peer contrast socialization (Niche 2) niches had larger dissimilarities between socialization opportunities in the peer setting than the school and family settings. In the former, however, the contrast was lower, and socialization ranged between very low to low. In the latter, the contrast was higher and socialization ranged from very low to moderate. Most adolescents were in the cross-setting similar lower socialization niche or in the cross-setting dissimilar niches. Adolescents in the cross-setting similar higher multicultural socialization demonstrated greater emotional and behavioral academic engagement than adolescents in most of the other niches. Adolescents in the cross-setting dissimilar school contrast niches demonstrated lower emotional and behavioral academic engagement and lower academic expectations than adolescents in some of the other niches. The results emphasize the collective role of school, peer, and family multicultural socialization on emotional and behavioral academic engagement.

Is My Femininity a Liability? Longitudinal Associations between Girls' Experiences of Gender Discrimination, Internalizing Symptoms, and Gender Identity.

Gender discrimination is a common experience for adolescent girls and has implications for their mental health and identity development. Guided by Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST; Spencer et al. 1997), this study examined the longitudinal and bidirectional associations between adolescent girls' experiences of gender discrimination, their internalizing symptoms, and gender identity. The sample was 161 adolescent girls (ages 14-17; Mage = 15.90) from across the United States (51% White; 17% African American, 11% Hispanic/Latina) who participated in a short-term longitudinal study of adolescent development. The results showed a reciprocal, longitudinal association between discrimination and internalizing symptoms. Discrimination also predicted longitudinal declines in gender identity, which was explained indirectly through internalizing symptoms. The findings implicate gender discrimination as a distinct risk factor during girls' developmental years, and underscore the importance of helping girls learn adaptive responses to sexism, while also reducing actual occurrence and exposure.

Masculine gender-role adherence indicates conflict resolution patterns in heterosexual adolescent couples: A dyadic, observational study.

INTRODUCTION: Conflict resolution in romantic relationships is a critical skillset that relates to individual and relational well-being. In adolescence, heterosexual romantic relationships are highly gendered, and norms for traditional masculinity (a bravado focused on interpersonal dominance) may be relevant in shaping how adolescents navigate disagreements. Therefore, we examined the associations between adolescents' conformity to norms for traditional masculinity and their conflict resolution in their romantic relationships. METHOD: Using a sample of 91 heterosexual adolescent couples from the Southwest United States (Mage = 16.50, SD = .90; 44% White, 42% Latinx), we examined how self-reported conformity to traditional masculinity predicted independent observer ratings of negotiation, coercion, and avoidance strategies during a lab-based conflict and jealousy discussion task. RESULTS: Results of actor-partner interdependence models (APIMs) indicated that more highly masculine adolescents generally displayed less conflict negotiation and more coercion during the discussion task. Dyadic and gendered patterns characterized masculinity's associations with negotiation and coercion. Masculinity was unassociated with conflict avoidance. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents in heterosexual relationships that adhere more rigidly to gendered norms for traditional masculinity may be challenged in acquiring skills for constructive conflict resolution with a romantic partner. Adolescent romantic relationships are a socialization context in which many individuals develop the skills for future romantic relationships, including those into young adulthood. Addressing masculine gender roles in adolescence may help promote the development of positive conflict management and overall romantic functioning in youth.

Trajectories of Perceived Parental Psychological Control across Adolescence and Implications for the Development of Depressive and Anxiety Symptoms.

Theory and research indicate considerable changes in parental control across adolescence (e.g., declining behavioral control), but the developmental course and significance of psychological control remains largely unknown. This study examined trajectories of adolescents' reports of mothers' and fathers' psychological control from ages 12 to 19, predictors of occupying distinct trajectories, and the developmental significance of these trajectories for adolescents' development of depressive and anxiety symptoms. It used eight waves of survey data on 500 adolescents (Mage = 11.83, SD = 1.03; 52% female; 67% White, 12% African American) and their parents from the Pacific Northwest United States. Most adolescents (about 90%) reported low but increasing levels of parental psychological control over time, with a small but significant subset (about 10%) perceiving perpetually elevated levels. Mothers' (but not fathers') depressive symptoms, reported at the age 12 assessment, predicted adolescents' membership in the elevated psychological control trajectory. Adolescents occupying these elevated trajectories showed more problematic growth in depressive and anxiety symptoms across adolescence. Taken together, the findings suggest that many adolescents experience increased parental psychological control as they age, and that variability in these trends indicates individual differences in their development of depressive and anxiety symptoms over time.

A Meta-Analysis of Parenting Practices and Child Psychosocial Outcomes in Trauma-Informed Parenting Interventions after Violence Exposure.

Over half of all youth are exposed to violence, which a growing body of literature suggests is associated with a broad range of negative developmental outcomes over the life course. However, best practices for supporting parenting are not widely applied to parents with children exposed to violence-related trauma. This meta-analyses seeks to synthesize the literature base of trauma-informed parenting interventions to better understand their potential impact on parenting and child outcomes. Specifically, 21 trauma-informed parenting interventions were identified that quantitatively assessed intervention effects on parenting and child outcomes. Six meta-analyses were conducted to assess intervention effects on (1) positive parenting practices, (2) negative parenting practices, (3) parenting stress, (4) children's internalizing problems, (5) children's externalizing problems, and (6) trauma symptoms, respectively. Moderate to large effect sizes were found for positive parenting practices (d = 0.62) as well as child internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and trauma symptoms (d = 0.48-0.59). Validity tests indicated robust findings for positive parenting and for all child outcomes. Additional moderator analyses support the importance of informed intervention design, showing differential findings by trauma type as well as by duration of the intervention. These findings indicate the value of evidence-based parenting interventions for violence-related trauma and support models of trauma-informed care that situate treatment in the broader social context, particularly the family. Results are discussed with respect to which parenting practices hold the most promise for supporting children exposed to violence-related trauma.

Adolescents' Daily Romantic Experiences and Negative Mood: A Dyadic, Intensive Longitudinal Study.

Romantic relationships, although increasingly normative during adolescence, also present unique developmental challenges that can portend psychological difficulties. Underlying these difficulties may be the degree to which daily romantic transactions potentiate fluctuations in negative mood. The present study examined associations between adolescents' daily romantic relationship experiences and their same-day negative affective states (i.e., fluctuations in high-arousal, aversive mood). Using a dyadic ecological momentary assessment (EMA) design, this study followed an ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of 98 adolescent romantic couples twice weekly for 12 weeks (n = 196 individuals; Mage = 16.74 years, SD = 0.90; 45% Latina/o, 45% White; 55% receiving free or reduced meals). The results indicated that various daily romantic experiences (e.g., conflict, feelings about the relationship) predicted greater same-day negative affect. Beyond the effects of these romantic experiences, adolescent couples were also synchronized in their fluctuating negative affective states, evidencing the presence of emotional contagion. Overall, the findings indicate the salience of romantic relationships in the everyday lives of adolescents.

Proximal and Distal Effects of Sensation Seeking and Parenting Environments on Alcohol Use Trajectories from Early Adolescence to Early Adulthood.

Adolescent alcohol use is related to disinhibition traits and family environments. However, research is scarce on whether these factors predict alcohol use trajectories distally, from early adolescence into early adulthood. We examined whether sensation seeking and parenting environments in early adolescence predicted adolescents' alcohol use trajectories proximally (middle-adolescence) and distally (early adulthood). Using four waves of data from 345 adolescents (51.3% female; 80% white) and their primary caregivers, we estimated adolescents' alcohol use trajectories and examined variability in these by sensation seeking and parental control. The findings revealed distal, positive associations between sensation seeking and alcohol use; and negative, proximal associations between parental control and alcohol use. Also proximally, there was a significant interaction between sensation seeking and parental control. We discuss implications for theory and practice.

Traditional Masculinity During the Middle School Transition: Associations with Depressive Symptoms and Academic Engagement.

Culturally prescribed social scripts for traditional masculinity that emphasize social dominance are frequently linked to diminished well-being for men across a variety of psychological domains. However, few studies have examined the role of traditional masculinity scripts in the lives of early adolescent boys and girls, despite their relevance during this period and their potential developmental implications. To address this need, we examined the development of early adolescents' conformity to traditional masculinity across the middle school transition, as well as its links with depressive symptoms and academic engagement. Using a diverse sample of 280 adolescents (M age = 11.13, SD = 0.51; 54.3 % Female; 44 % Latina/o) assessed at the beginning (fall 2014) and end (spring 2015) of their first year of middle school, we found an increase in conformity to traditional masculinity scripts among boys, but not among girls. For boys and girls alike, conformity to traditional masculinity predicted greater depressive symptoms and decreased academic engagement. Depressive symptoms also mediated the association between traditional masculinity and academic engagement for boys and girls. This study is among the first to study conformity to traditional masculinity from a developmental lens. The findings suggest that traditional masculinity scripts are relevant for early adolescents (particularly boys) transitioning to middle school. However, for both boys and girls, conformity to these scripts can compromise psychological and academic well-being.

Parent-Child Sexual Communication Frequency and Adolescent Disclosure to Mothers About Sexuality: The Moderating Role of Open Communication in a Common Fate Structural Equation Model.

Although frequent and open parent-child sexual communication (PCSC) has been shown to yield positive effects on adolescent sexual health outcomes, most PCSC is one-sided and parent dominated rather than ideal communication characterized by openness. Adolescent children's disclosure of sexual feelings and behaviors to parents can prompt parent-child sexual communication (PCSC) and help parents tailor PCSC to children's needs, increasing the effectiveness of PCSC in promoting positive sexual outcomes. However, very little work has been done exploring correlates of adolescent disclosure about sexuality. Thus, the current study explored the associations between frequent PCSC and child disclosure and secret keeping, and whether open PCSC moderated the relationships. The sample included 603 mother-child dyads from the United States. Adolescent children were 12-17 years old (M = 14.55, SD = 1.68), White (55.6%) and cisgender female (49.8%). A common-fate SEM model revealed that PCSC frequency was positively associated with adolescent disclosure and adolescent secret keeping. However, when PCSC was open, PCSC frequency was associated with a decrease in adolescent secret keeping and an increase in adolescent disclosure. We discuss the importance of encouraging both open and frequent PCSC, as their interaction is related to increased adolescent disclosure and less adolescent secret keeping.

Executive functioning as a moderator of flossing behaviour among young adults: a temporal self-regulation theory perspective.

Background: Flossing among young adults is often infrequent and barriers not completely understood. One explanation concerns the capacity for executive functioning (EF) during the self-regulation of behaviour. Methods: Using Temporal Self-Regulation Theory (TST) as a framework to explore EF, young adults from Norwegian universities completed a survey that measured monthly flossing frequency, flossing-related intentions and behavioural prepotency (BP), and EF using the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Adult Version (BRIEF-A). Results: Data from 362 participants were analysed. The TST-model explained a substantial proportion of variance in monthly flossing (R2 = 0.74), and flossing was associated directly with intention and BP, and interactions between intention and both BP and global-EF. Sub-domains of EF were explored using the same model, revealing that behavioural regulation processes, specifically those related to emotional control and shifting between tasks, offered better fit. Simple slopes revealed that moderation effects were only present at lower levels of BP. Conclusion: EF plays a role in moderating the translation of intentions into flossing behaviour. Specifically, emotional control and task-shifting appear to be influential, and this influence increases when habitual and environmental support (i.e. BP) is reduced. Overcoming EF-barriers may represent a key step in establishing flossing behaviours.

Parents' judgments of children's gender-typed play indicate qualities of the early-life caregiving environment.

Play is critical for children's development but is the target of significant gender stereotyping. Early in life, parents must navigate these stereotypes on behalf of their children. This study examined typologies of caregivers' judgments toward their infants' future engagement with toys and activities considered typical of same- and different-gender peers, and whether these judgments indicated qualities of the child-rearing environment. We conducted a latent profile analysis on a sample of 501 families with infant children in a large city in the Western United States (501 mothers, 388 fathers; 69% White, 16% Latinx, 8% African American). Results showed that parents could be classified as androgynous, stereotyped, counterstereotyped, or gender-impartial in their preferences for their child's toys and activities. Mothers who displayed androgynous and counterstereotyped preferences-primarily conveying approval different-gender-typed play-were rated higher on objective assessments of the quality of the home environment and parent-child interactions. How parents orient to cultural gendered messages for children's play may have implications for the overall parenting environment. We discuss implications for research and practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Nuanced Longitudinal Effects of Domains of Perceived Gender Similarity on Adolescent Peer Victimization.

Gender similarity is an indicator of perceived fit with own-gender peers and other-gender peers and is strongly correlated with indicators of adolescent adjustment, including negative peer interactions. Although gender similarity is generally studied as a composite variable, evidence is increasing that peer victimization might be uniquely related to specific domains of gender similarity such as appearance or interests. A better understanding of the specific factors that motivate peer victimization will likely aid in intervention efforts. We analyzed five domains of own- and other-gender similarity (feelings, actions, appearance, preferences, time spent with peers) for adolescents, and explored whether they uniquely predicted negative peer interactions including general peer victimization (e.g., pushing/hitting) and experiencing or perpetrating gender-based peer victimization (e.g., anti-gay name-calling) over time. With 407 adolescents (14-17 years old, M age = 15.42, 50% girls, 52% White) from two timepoints that were six months apart, we first conducted MANOVAs at T1 to assess gender differences in peer victimization experiences. Next, we conducted logistic regression path analyses to model the relation between gender similarity and peer victimization over time. Adolescents reported unique outcomes for different domains of gender similarity with girls focused on appearance and boys focused on not spending time with girls. We discuss how girls' and boys' experiences of gender similarity may be differentially informed by androcentric culture and how different expressions of gender uniquely provoke negative peer attention.

Top-down self-regulation processes as determinants of oral hygiene self-care behaviour: A systematic scoping review.

OBJECTIVES: Understanding the psychological mechanisms that moderate oral hygiene self-care behavior is anticipated to benefit efforts to change such behavior. Top-down self-regulatory (TSR) processes represent one group of relatively unexplored, yet potentially influential, moderating factors. This systematic scoping review aims to explore whether there is evidence that TSR processes moderate oral hygiene self-care engagement within the current literature. METHODS: CINAHL, The Cochrane Library, Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched up to April 2020 for articles that compared measures of TSR processes (such as self-monitoring, inhibitory control, and task switching) to oral hygiene self-care behavior, or tested interventions that aimed to change or support TSR processes. RESULTS: The search returned 6626 articles, with 25 included in the final sample. Weak evidence supported both the role of TSR processes as moderators of interdental cleaning and the value of interventions targeting self-monitoring of interdental cleaning behavior. Overall, methodological limitations rendered the findings somewhat inconclusive, with an absence of objective assessments of TSR capacity, and little focus on TSR processes as moderators of intervention effects. CONCLUSIONS: The inconclusive, but reasonably promising, findings point to the value of continuing to apply TSR processes within studies of oral hygiene behavior. Exploring why interdental cleaning appears more reliant on TSR processes than toothbrushing, employing objective neuropsychological assessment, and measuring TSR constructs within interventions targeting TSR processes, are encouraged. As a scoping review, the study hopes to generate interest and serve as a starting point for further investigation.

Development and Testing of the Parent-Child Sex Communication Inventory: A Multidimensional Assessment Tool for Parent and Adolescent Informants.

Parent-child sex communication is a complex and multidimensional construct, and effective measurement tools that reflect this complexity are scarce. The purpose of this study was to develop and test an assessment tool of parent-child sex communication that reflects the multidimensional nature of the construct and which can be flexibly administered between both parent and adolescent informants. Using two large national samples from the United States involving adolescents (N = 2,044; Mage = 16.19, SD = 1.71) and unrelated parents of adolescents (N = 2,081), we psychometrically tested the Parent-Child Sex Communication Inventory (PCSCI). Validity evidence (i.e., construct, discriminant, convergent, and divergent) supported a 30-item measure that consisted of three overarching dimensions distributed along seven subscales: Frequency of sex communication (about sexual risk, about sex physiology, and about the positive aspects of sex); the Quality of sex communication (open communication versus parent controlled communication); and Child Managed sex communication (involving disclosure and secrecy). The PCSCI is an assessment tool for tapping multiple fundamental dimensions of parent-child sex communication that is quick and easy to administer. Further, it can be administered to both parent and adolescent informants. Therefore, it represents a significant methodological advancement for continuing research on parent-child sex communication.

Adolescents' Perceived Socio-Emotional Impact of COVID-19 and Implications for Mental Health: Results From a U.S.-Based Mixed-Methods Study.

PURPOSE: COVID-19 has disrupted many aspects of adolescents' lives, yet little data are available that document their subjective experiences of the pandemic. In a mixed-methods study of U.S. adolescents, we examined (1) adolescents' perceptions of how their social and emotional lives had changed during COVID-19; and (2) associations between these perceived changes and indices of their mental health, above and beyond their prepandemic mental health status. METHODS: Four hundred seven U.S. adolescents (Mage = 15.24, standard deviation = 1.69; 50% female; 52%, 20% African American, 17% Hispanic/Latinx) completed surveys before (October 2019) and during (April 2020) the COVID-19 pandemic. They provided qualitative and quantitative responses on their experiences with COVID-19 and reports of their mental health. RESULTS: Adolescents perceived various changes in their relationships with family and friends (e.g., less perceived friend support) during COVID-19. They also perceived increases in negative affect and decreases in positive affect. These perceived social and emotional changes were associated with elevated depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and loneliness in April 2020, controlling for mental health problems before the pandemic. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings sensitize clinicians and scholars to the vulnerabilities (changes in friendship dynamics), as well as resiliencies (supportive family contexts), presented to U.S. adolescents during the early months of COVID-19.