CSN6 drives carcinogenesis by positively regulating Myc stability.

Cullin-RING ubiquitin ligases (CRLs) are critical in ubiquitinating Myc, while COP9 signalosome (CSN) controls neddylation of Cullin in CRL. The mechanistic link between Cullin neddylation and Myc ubiquitination/degradation is unclear. Here we show that Myc is a target of the CSN subunit 6 (CSN6)-Cullin signalling axis and that CSN6 is a positive regulator of Myc. CSN6 enhanced neddylation of Cullin-1 and facilitated autoubiquitination/degradation of Fbxw7, a component of CRL involved in Myc ubiquitination, thereby stabilizing Myc. Csn6 haplo-insufficiency decreased Cullin-1 neddylation but increased Fbxw7 stability to compromise Myc stability and activity in an Eµ-Myc mouse model, resulting in decelerated lymphomagenesis. We found that CSN6 overexpression, which leads to aberrant expression of Myc target genes, is frequent in human cancers. Together, these results define a mechanism for the regulation of Myc stability through the CSN-Cullin-Fbxw7 axis and provide insights into the correlation of CSN6 overexpression with Myc stabilization/activation during tumorigenesis.

ER stress inhibits mTORC2 and Akt signaling through GSK-3ß-mediated phosphorylation of rictor.

In response to environmental cues, cells coordinate a balance between anabolic and catabolic pathways. In eukaryotes, growth factors promote anabolic processes and stimulate cell growth, proliferation, and survival through activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathway. Akt-mediated phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3ß (GSK-3ß) inhibits its enzymatic activity, thereby stimulating glycogen synthesis. We show that GSK-3ß itself inhibits Akt by controlling the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2), a key activating kinase for Akt. We found that during cellular stress, GSK-3ß phosphorylated the mTORC2 component rictor at serine-1235, a modification that interfered with the binding of Akt to mTORC2. The inhibitory effect of GSK-3ß on mTORC2-Akt signaling and cell proliferation was eliminated by blocking phosphorylation of rictor at serine-1235. Thus, in response to cellular stress, GSK-3ß restrains mTORC2-Akt signaling by specifically phosphorylating rictor, thereby balancing the activities of GSK-3ß and Akt, two opposing players in glucose metabolism.

Subunit 6 of the COP9 signalosome promotes tumorigenesis in mice through stabilization of MDM2 and is upregulated in human cancers.

The mammalian constitutive photomorphogenesis 9 (COP9) signalosome (CSN), a protein complex involved in embryonic development, is implicated in cell cycle regulation and the DNA damage response. Its role in tumor development, however, remains unclear. Here, we have shown that the COP9 subunit 6 (CSN6) gene is amplified in human breast cancer specimens, and the CSN6 protein is upregulated in human breast and thyroid tumors. CSN6 expression positively correlated with expression of murine double minute 2 (MDM2), a potent negative regulator of the p53 tumor suppressor. Expression of CSN6 appeared to prevent MDM2 autoubiquitination at lysine 364, resulting in stabilization of MDM2 and degradation of p53. Mice in which Csn6 was deleted died early in embryogenesis (E7.5). Embryos lacking both Csn6 and p53 survived to later in embryonic development (E10.5), which suggests that loss of p53 could partially rescue the effect of loss of Csn6. Mice heterozygous for Csn6 were sensitized to γ-irradiation-induced, p53-dependent apoptosis in both the thymus and the developing CNS. These mice were also less susceptible than wild-type mice to γ-irradiation-induced tumorigenesis. These results suggest that loss of CSN6 enhances p53-mediated tumor suppression in vivo and that CSN6 plays an important role in regulating DNA damage-associated apoptosis and tumorigenesis through control of the MDM2-p53 signaling pathway.

Rictor phosphorylation on the Thr-1135 site does not require mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2.

In animal cells, growth factors coordinate cell proliferation and survival by regulating the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt signaling pathway. Deregulation of this signaling pathway is common in a variety of human cancers. The PI3K-dependent signaling kinase complex defined as mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2) functions as a regulatory Ser-473 kinase of Akt. We find that activation of mTORC2 by growth factor signaling is linked to the specific phosphorylation of its component rictor on Thr-1135. The phosphorylation of this site is induced by the growth factor stimulation and expression of the oncogenic forms of ras or PI3K. Rictor phosphorylation is sensitive to the inhibition of PI3K, mTOR, or expression of integrin-linked kinase. The substitution of wild-type rictor with its specific phospho-mutants in rictor null mouse embryonic fibroblasts did not alter the growth factor-dependent phosphorylation of Akt, indicating that the rictor Thr-1135 phosphorylation is not critical in the regulation of the mTORC2 kinase activity. We found that this rictor phosphorylation takes place in the mTORC2-deficient cells, suggesting that this modification might play a role in the regulation of not only mTORC2 but also the mTORC2-independent function of rictor.

Liver-specific deletion of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 reduces hepatic triglyceride accumulation without affecting glucose homeostasis.

In animals, liver and white adipose are the main sites for the de novo fatty acid synthesis. Deletion of fatty acid synthase or acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) 1 in mice resulted in embryonic lethality, indicating that the de novo fatty acid synthesis is essential for embryonic development. To understand the importance of de novo fatty acid synthesis and the role of ACC1-produced malonyl-CoA in adult mouse tissues, we generated liver-specific ACC1 knockout (LACC1KO) mice. LACC1KO mice have no obvious health problem under normal feeding conditions. Total ACC activity and malonyl-CoA levels were approximately 70-75% lower in liver of LACC1KO mice compared with that of the WT mice. In addition, the livers of LACC1KO mice accumulated 40-70% less triglycerides. Unexpectedly, when fed fat-free diet for 10 days, there was significant up-regulation of PPARgamma and several enzymes in the lipogenic pathway in the liver of LACC1KO mice compared with the WT mice. Despite the significant up-regulation of the lipogenic enzymes, including a >2-fold increase in fatty acid synthase mRNA, protein, and activity, there was significant decrease in the de novo fatty acid synthesis and triglyceride accumulation in the liver. However, there were no significant changes in blood glucose and fasting ketone body levels. Hence, reducing cytosolic malonyl-CoA and, therefore, the de novo fatty acid synthesis in the liver, does not affect fatty acid oxidation and glucose homeostasis under lipogenic conditions.

Glucose and fat metabolism in adipose tissue of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2 knockout mice.

Acc2-/- mutant mice, when fed a high-fat/high-carbohydrate (HF/HC) diet, were protected against diet-induced obesity and diabetes. To investigate the role of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2 (ACC2) in the regulation of energy metabolism in adipose tissues, we studied fatty acid and glucose oxidation in primary cultures of adipocytes isolated from wild-type and Acc2-/- mutant mice fed either normal chow or a HF/HC diet. When fed normal chow, oxidation of [14C]palmitate in adipocytes of Acc2-/- mutant mice was approximately 80% higher than in adipocytes of WT mice, and it remained significantly higher in the presence of insulin. Interestingly, in addition to increased fatty acid oxidation, we also observed increased glucose oxidation in adipocytes of Acc2-/- mutant mice compared with that of WT mice. When fed a HF/HC diet for 4-5 months, adipocytes of Acc2-/- mutant mice maintained a 25% higher palmitate oxidation and a 2-fold higher glucose oxidation than WT mice. The mRNA level of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) decreased several fold in the adipose tissue of WT mice fed a HF/HC diet; however, in the adipose tissue of Acc2-/- mutant mice, it was 7-fold higher. Moreover, lipolysis activity was higher in adipocytes of Acc2-/- mutant mice compared with that in WT mice. These findings suggest that continuous fatty acid oxidation in the adipocytes of Acc2-/- mutant mice, combined with a higher level of glucose oxidation and a higher rate of lipolysis, are major factors leading to efficient maintenance of insulin sensitivity and leaner Acc2-/- mutant mice.

Mutant mice lacking acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 are embryonically lethal.

Acetyl-CoA carboxylases (ACC1 and ACC2) catalyze the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA, an intermediate metabolite that plays a pivotal role in the regulation of fatty acid metabolism. We previously reported that ACC2 null mice are viable, and that ACC2 plays an important role in the regulation of fatty acid oxidation through the inhibition of carnitine palmitoyltransferase I, a mitochondrial component of the fatty-acyl shuttle system. Herein, we used gene targeting to knock out the ACC1 gene. The heterozygous mutant mice (Acc1(+/-)) had normal fertility and lifespans and maintained a similar body weight to that of their wild-type cohorts. The mRNA level of ACC1 in the tissues of Acc1(+/-) mice was half that of the wild type; however, the protein level of ACC1 and the total malonyl-CoA level were similar. In addition, there was no difference in the acetate incorporation into fatty acids nor in the fatty acid oxidation between the hepatocytes of Acc1(+/-) mice and those of the wild type. In contrast to Acc2(-/-) mice, Acc1(-/-) mice were not detected after mating. Timed pregnancies of heterozygotes revealed that Acc(-/-) embryos are already undeveloped at embryonic day (E)7.5, they die by E8.5, and are completely resorbed at E11.5. Our previous results of the ACC2 knockout mice and current studies of ACC1 knockout mice further confirm our hypotheses that malonyl-CoA exists in two independent pools, and that ACC1 and ACC2 have distinct roles in fatty acid metabolism.