A physical map and candidate genes in the BRCA1 region on chromosome 17q12-21.

We have constructed a physical map of a 4 cM region on chromosome 17q12-21 that contains the hereditary breast and ovarian cancer gene BRCA1. The map comprises a contig of 137 overlapping yeast artificial chromosomes and P1 clones, onto which we have placed 112 PCR markers. We have localized more than 20 genes on this map, ten of which had not been mapped to the region previously, and have isolated 30 cDNA clones representing partial sequences of as yet unidentified genes. Two genes that lie within a narrow region defined by meiotic breakpoints in BRCA1 patients have been sequenced in breast cancer patients without revealing any deleterious mutations. These new reagents should facilitate the identification of BRCA1.

BRCA1 knock-down causes telomere dysfunction in mammary epithelial cells.

A breast cancer predisposing gene, BRCA1, is a major suppressor of chromosomal instability and its dysfunction affects multiple pathways involved in DNA damage response. There is increasing evidence that the mechanisms involved in maintenance of telomeres, specialized structures at chromosome ends, are linked with DNA damage response. We therefore investigated whether BRCA1 dysfunction affects telomere maintenance. To achieve this we knocked-down BRCA1 in two mammary epithelial cell lines using RNA interference. Subsequent analysis by immunofluorescence, RT-PCR and Western blotting revealed that a short interfering RNA oligonucleotide used was able to knock-down BRCA1 efficiently. This knock-down did not have any effect on telomerase enzyme activity and telomere length. However, BRCA1 knock-down correlated with the increase in chromatin bridges in anaphase cells which usually reflect telomere dysfunction. Therefore, this study suggests that BRCA1 knockdown in mammary epithelial cells causes telomere dysfunction.

Effects of hTERT on metal ion-induced genomic instability.

There is currently a great interest in delayed chromosomal and other damaging effects of low-dose exposure to a variety of pollutants which appear collectively to act through induction of stress-response pathways related to oxidative stress and ageing. These have been studied mostly in the radiation field but evidence is accumulating that the mechanisms can also be triggered by chemicals, especially heavy metals. Humans are exposed to metals, including chromium (Cr) (VI) and vanadium (V) (V), from the environment, industry and surgical implants. Thus, the impact of low-dose stress responses may be larger than expected from individual toxicity projections. In this study, a short (24 h) exposure of human fibroblasts to low doses of Cr (VI) and V (V) caused both acute chromosome damage and genomic instability in the progeny of exposed cells for at least 30 days after exposure. Acutely, Cr (VI) caused chromatid breaks without aneuploidy while V (V) caused aneuploidy without chromatid breaks. The longer-term genomic instability was similar but depended on hTERT positivity. In telomerase-negative hTERT- cells, Cr (VI) and V (V) caused a long lasting and transmissible induction of dicentric chromosomes, nucleoplasmic bridges, micronuclei and aneuploidy. There was also a long term and transmissible reduction of clonogenic survival, with an increased beta-galactosidase staining and apoptosis. This instability was not present in telomerase-positive hTERT+ cells. In contrast, in hTERT+ cells the metals caused a persistent induction of tetraploidy, which was not noted in hTERT- cells. The growth and survival of both metal-exposed hTERT+ and hTERT- cells differed if they were cultured at subconfluent levels or plated out as colonies. Genomic instability is considered to be a driving force towards cancer. This study suggests that the type of genomic instability in human cells may depend critically on whether they are telomerase-positive or -negative and that their sensitivities to metals could depend on whether they are clustered or diffuse.

Telomere length abnormalities in mammalian radiosensitive cells.

Telomere lengths in radiosensitive murine lymphoma cells L5178Y-S and parental radioresistant L5178Y cells were measured by quantitative fluorescence in situ hybridization. Results revealed a 7-fold reduction in telomere length in radiosensitive cells (7 kb) in comparison with radioresistant cells (48 kb). Therefore, it was reasoned that telomere length might be used as a marker for chromosomal radiosensitivity. In agreement with this hypothesis, a significant inverse correlation between telomere length and chromosomal radiosensitivity was observed in lymphocytes from 24 breast cancer patients and 5 normal individuals. In contrast, no chromosomal radiosensitivity was observed in mouse cell lines that showed shortened telomeres, possibly reflecting differences in radiation responses between primary cells and established cell lines. Telomere length abnormalities observed in radiosensitive cells suggest that these two phenotypes may be linked.

Chromosomal aberrations involving telomeres in BRCA1 deficient human and mouse cell lines.

Cells defective in BRCA1 show genomic instability as evidenced by increased radiosensitivity, the presence of chromosomal abnormalities and the loss of heterozygosity at many loci. Reported chromosomal abnormalities in BRCA1 deficient cells include dicentric chromosomes. Dicentric chromosomes, in some cases, may arise as a result of end-to-end chromosome fusions, which represent signatures of telomere dysfunction. In this study we examined BRCA1 deficient human and mouse cells for the presence of chromosomal aberrations indicative of telomere dysfunction. We identified a lymphoblastoid cell line, GM14090, established from a BRCA1 carrier that showed elevated levels of dicentric chromosomes. Molecular cytogenetic analysis revealed that these dicentric chromosomes result from end-to-end chromosome fusions. The frequency of end-to-end chromosome fusions did not change after exposure of GM14090 cells to bleomycin but we observed elevated levels of chromosomal abnormalities involving interactions between DNA double strand breaks and uncapped telomeres in this cell line. We observed similar chromosomal abnormalities involving telomeres in the breast cancer cell line, HCC1937, homozygous for BRCA1 mutation. Finally, we analyzed mouse embryonic stem cells lacking functional Brca1 and observed the presence of telomere dysfunction following exposure of these cells to bleomycin. Our results reveal cytogenetic evidence of telomere dysfunction in BRCA1 deficient cells.

Accelerated telomere shortening and telomere abnormalities in radiosensitive cell lines.

We examined telomere maintenance in cells of 11 primary fibroblast cell lines with differing genetic defects that confer sensitivity to ionizing radiation. These included cell lines derived from patients with ataxia telangiectasia, Nijmegen breakage syndrome, Fanconi anemia, defective Artemis, DNA ligase I and DNA ligase IV, an immunodeficient patient with a defect in DNA double-strand break repair, and a patient diagnosed with xeroderma pigmentosum who, in addition, showed severe clinical sensitivity to ionizing radiation. Our results, based on Southern blot, flow-FISH and Q-FISH (quantitative FISH) measurements, revealed an accelerated rate of telomere shortening in most cell lines derived from the above patients compared to cell lines from normal individuals or a cell line isolated from a heterozygotic parent of one radiosensitive patient. This accelerated telomere shortening was accompanied by the formation of chromatin bridges in anaphase cells, indicative of the early loss of telomere capping function and in some cases low levels of chromosome abnormalities in metaphase cells. We also analyzed telomere maintenance in mouse embryonic stem cells deficient in Brca1, another defect that confers radiosensitivity. Similarly, these cells showed accelerated telomere shortening and mild telomere dysfunction in comparison to control cells. Our results suggest that mechanisms that confer sensitivity to ionizing radiation may be linked with mechanisms that cause telomere dysfunction.

Shortened telomeres in murine scid cells expressing mutant hRAD54 coincide with reduction in recombination at telomeres.

Murine severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) cells are characterized by defective Prkdc (DNA-PKcs), one of the key genes involved in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Interestingly, scid mice are not null mutants and their cells are likely to show low DNA-PKcs activity. Prkdc is also involved in telomere maintenance and in contrast to mice genetically engineered to lack Prkdc (i.e. null mutants), which show complete absence of DNA-PKcs activity, loss of telomere capping function and normal telomere length, cells from scid mice show not only loss of telomere capping function but also abnormally elongated telomeres. Here we demonstrate that telomere elongation observed in murine scid cells can be reversed by expressing mutant hRAD54, a protein involved in homologous recombination. In addition, we measured recombination rates at telomeres using chromosome orientation fluorescence in situ hybridization (CO-FISH) and found that these are elevated in scid cells in comparison with control cells, or significantly reduced in scid cells expressing mutant hRAD54. Similarly, recombination rates at telomeres are reduced in scid cells following introduction of functional Prkdc. Since expression of mutant hRAD54 and restoration of functional Prkdc in scid cells cause the same effects, i.e. telomere shortening and reduced recombination rates at telomeres, these results argue that telomere elongation in scid cells is a complex trait resulting from interactions between homologous recombination mechanisms and DNA-PKcs.

Telomere length measurement in mouse chromosomes by a modified Q-FISH method.

Telomeres are physical ends of mammalian chromosomes that dynamically change during the lifetime of a cell or organism. In order to understand mechanisms responsible for telomere dynamics, it is necessary to develop methods for accurate telomere length measurement. The most sensitive method for measuring telomere length in mouse chromosomes is quantitative fluorescence in situ hybridization (Q-FISH). The usual protocol for Q-FISH requires plasmids with variable numbers of telomeric repeats and fluorescence beads as calibration standards. Here, we describe a Q-FISH protocol in which two mouse lymphoma cell lines with well-defined telomere lengths are used as calibration standards. Using this protocol we demonstrate that reproducible results can be obtained in a set of four different mouse cell lines. This method can be adapted so that any pair of mammalian cell lines can serve as an internal calibration standard.

Lack of spontaneous and radiation-induced chromosome breakage at interstitial telomeric sites in murine scid cells.

Interstitial telomeric sites (ITSs) in chromosomes from DNA repair-proficient mammalian cells are sensitive to both spontaneous and radiation-induced chromosome breakage. Exact mechanisms of this chromosome breakage sensitivity are not known. To investigate factors that predispose ITSs to chromosome breakage we used murine scid cells. These cells lack functional DNA-PKcs, an enzyme involved in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Interestingly, our results revealed lack of both spontaneous and radiation-induced chromosome breakage at ITSs found in scid chromosomes. Therefore, it is possible that increased sensitivity of ITSs to chromosome breakage is associated with the functional DNA double-strand break repair machinery. To investigate if this is the case we used scid cells in which DNA-PKcs deficiency was corrected. Our results revealed complete disappearance of ITSs in scid cells with functional DNA-PKcs, presumably through chromosome breakage at ITSs, but their unchanged frequency in positive and negative control cells. Therefore, our results indicate that the functional DNA double-strand break machinery is required for elevated sensitivity of ITSs to chromosome breakage. Interestingly, we observed significant differences in mitotic chromosome condensation between scid cells and their counterparts with restored DNA-PKcs activity suggesting that lack of functional DNA-PKcs may cause a defect in chromatin organization. Increased condensation of mitotic chromosomes in the scid background was also confirmed in vivo. Therefore, our results indicate a previously unanticipated role of DNA-PKcs in chromatin organisation, which could contribute to the lack of ITS sensitivity to chromosome breakage in murine scid cells.

G2 chromatid aberrations: kinetics and possible mechanisms.

Chromatid breaks and exchanges are induced by radiation in G2 mammalian cells. Breaks are at a maximum number at about 30 min after irradiation and decrease apparently exponentially with time between irradiation and sampling. Few breaks are observed immediately following exposure, probably as a result of selection of mitotic cells where chromosomes are condensed and there is consequently a lack of time for expression of damage. The change in frequency of breaks with time, from 30 min after radiation exposure and onwards, can be interpreted in two possible ways: either in terms of a repair process or in terms of a change in radiosensitivity through G2. However, our results with an inhibitor of repair of DNA double-strand breaks (ara A) and with "transient hypothermia" which extends the G2 phase, argue for an interpretation based on rejoining of chromatid breaks, possibly reflecting the repair of a subclass of dsb. Data from experiments with irradiated and restriction endonuclease treated radiosensitive mutant rodent lines indicate that enhanced levels of conversion of dsb into chromosomal aberrations may be largely independent of repair rates of bulk dsb. In CHO cells and in human lymphocytes exchanges initially increase rapidly with time and then remain at a constant frequency, supporting the notion of a uniform chromosomal radiosensitivity throughout most of G2 and providing further evidence that the mechanism for mis-joining broken chromatids (leading to exchanges) is different from that for rejoining of chromatoid breaks. Ratios of breaks to exchanges were found to vary in different cell lines and at different times during treatment with inhibitors or at altered temperatures, possibly (in different cell lines) indicating different levels of enzymes involved in misjoining, but suggesting that the mechanisms of chromosomal rejoining and misjoining are independent, at least to some degree.

Telomere shortening in mouse strains with constitutional chromosomal aberrations.

PURPOSE: To compare telomere length in mouse strains with constitutional chromosomal aberrations generated either by exposure of parents to ionizing radiation, a chemical mutagen or arising spontaneously with that of the karyotypically normal mouse from the same genetic background. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Telomere length was assessed in five independently derived strains of mouse with constitutional chromosomal aberrations and in the karyotypically normal control mouse using quantitative fluorescence in situ hybridization (Q-FISH). Bone marrow cells obtained directly from the animals were used for the analysis. RESULTS: Chromosomal aberrations, one in each mouse strain, included three reciprocal translocations induced by ionizing radiation, one insertion induced by a chemical mutagen and one spontaneous Robertsonian translocation. There was no cytogenetically detectable loss of material in any of the strains and most mice were phenotypically normal. Telomeres were significantly shorter in all mouse strains with constitutional chromosomal aberrations in comparison with those originating from the karyatypically normal mouse from the same genetic background. Telomeres were significantly shorter at p-arms than at q-arms in all animals. The telomere length in individual chromosomes was variable and there was no single chromosome with consistently short telomeres in all animals. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of stable chromosomal aberrations, such as translocations or insertions, in the mouse genome may generate telomere shortening. This might have implications for understanding biological consequences or radiation-induced stable chromosomal aberrations.

Distribution of radiation-induced G1 exchange and terminal deletion breakpoints in Chinese hamster chromosomes as detected by G banding.

A total of 255 chromosomal aberrations induced by X-rays in G1 phase of the cell cycle were scored in 600 G-banded metaphases prepared from Chinese hamster female cells. On the basis of a detailed analysis of these aberrations a total of 441 chromosomal breakpoints were mapped to the individual Chinese hamster chromosomes and their bands. More breakpoints were mapped to G-light (80.5%) than to G-dark (19.5%) bands. Chromosomal distribution of breakpoints revealed that chromosomes 5 and 8 had significantly more exchange breakpoints than expected on the basis of chromosomal length, whereas the X chromosome had significantly more terminal deletion breakpoints than expected. At the same time chromosomes 5 and 8 had a deficiency of terminal deletions, whereas the X chromosome had significant deficiency of exchange breakpoints. These results indicate that radiation-induced exchange and terminal deletion breakpoints, as observed in the first postirradiation metaphase, have different patterns of distribution in Chinese hamster chromosomes. Clustering of terminal deletions in the long arms of X chromosomes, which are entirely occupied by heterochromatin, suggests that chromosomal repair mechanisms responsible for rejoining of chromosomal breaks are less effective in heterochromatic than in other genomic regions.

Chromosome healing, telomere capture and mechanisms of radiation-induced chromosome breakage.

BACKGROUND: It is generally assumed that radiation-induced chromosome breaks are the result of a cell's inability to rejoin DNA double-strand breaks (dsb), but the exact mechanisms underlying the failure to rejoin some dsb and the conversion of these lesions into chromosome breaks are poorly understood at present. It has been speculated that the conversion of dsb into chromosome breaks, following exposure of mammalian cells to ionizing radiation, may be mediated by the enzyme telomerase. Telomerase is a reverse transcriptase that has two distinct functions, to replicate pre-existing chromosome ends (telomeres) and to heal broken chromosomes by de novo addition of telomeric sequences directly on to non-telomeric DNA. Alternatively, dsb may be converted into chromosome breaks by a telomerase-independent mechanism termed telomere capture. PURPOSE: To review telomere biology and to examine the significance of chromosome healing and telomere capture mechanisms tor radiation cytogenetics. CONCLUSION: The currently available literature suggests that telomere capture may be a more frequent mechanism for stabilization of broken chromosomes in mammalian cells than telomerase-mediated chromosome healing. However, a definitive conclusion must await improvements in the resolution of molecular cytogenetic techniques to a degree which allows telomerase products to be clearly distinguishable from subtelomeric cryptic translocations indicative of telomere capture.

Long but dysfunctional telomeres correlate with chromosomal radiosensitivity in a mouse AML cell line.

PURPOSE: To compare the chromosomal radiosensitivity of C3H mouse acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) cell lines 7926 and 8709 and to investigate the mechanistic basis of the radiosensitivity observed in 7926. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Yields of chromosome aberrations following X-irradiation were determined in Giemsa-stained metaphases. Cell cycle phase distributions were determined by BrdU incorporation and microscopy, apoptosis was assessed by caspase assays. Telomerase activity (TRAP assay), telomere length (Q-FISH and Southern blotting) and telomere function (Robertsonian-like fusion formation) were also examined. The expression levels of telomerase components, telomerase regulators and DNA PKcs were determined on Northern blots. RESULTS: A total of 4.5-7.6-fold elevated chromosome aberration yields were found in 7926 by comparison with 8709 3-24h after 0.5 and 1 Gy X-ray exposure. This difference could not be accounted for by differences in chromatid break-rejoining rates, cell cycle phase distribution or the induction of apoptosis. Telomeres and telomerase were dysfunctional in 7926. However, average telomere length was approximately two-fold greater than in 8709. CONCLUSION: Defective telomere function in 7926 correlates with chromosomal radiosensitivity. This implicates telomere function in addition to telomere length as a determinant of chromosomal radiosensitivity.

Recent developments in the assessment of chromosomal damage.

Ionizing radiation and restriction endonucleases are very efficient in inducing chromosomal aberrations (CAs). These aberrations are mainly consequences of misrepair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). The fast repairing component of DSBs induced by ionizing radiation seems to be responsible for exchange aberration. Use of premature chromosome condensation technique in combination with DNA repair inhibitors such as ara A has given valuable information on the assessment of the frequencies of initial chromosome breaks and the kinetics of their repair following low LET radiation. The recently developed 'chromosome painting' technique using chromosome-specific libraries has also increased considerably the resolution of identifying and scoring of CAs. After low LET radiation, stable chromosome exchanges (translocations) are induced more frequently than unstable chromosome exchanges (dicentrics). Fluorescence in situ hybridization employing telomeric probe has made it possible to score efficiently exchange aberrations involving the acrocentric chromosomes of mouse. Chinese hamster cells have several intercalary telomeric sequences present in most of the chromosomes. These telomeric blocks have been found to be associated with chromosomal aberrations induced by restriction endonucleases and short wave UV and evidence has been obtained for apparent amplification of telomeric sequences at the break points.

Telomere length and telomere-centromere relationships?

The quantitative fluorescence in situ hybridization (Q-FISH) technique enables an accurate estimate of individual telomere lengths, a possibility beyond the resolution of conventional techniques. So far, Q-FISH has been used for the estimate of individual telomere lengths in human, mouse and Chinese hamster chromosomes. This analysis revealed large variations in the size of individual telomeres and a specific intra-chromosomal distribution of telomere lengths; telomeres closer to centromeres appear to be shorter than their counterparts more distant from centromeres. This observation suggests that individual telomere length may be affected by centromere position, a possibility consistent with the theory of chromosome field postulated more than 40 years ago by Lima-de-Faria. The link between the theory of chromosome field and the role of telomere-centromere relationships in the regulation of telomere length is discussed in this article.

Distribution of X-ray-induced G2 chromatid damage among Chinese hamster chromosomes: influence of chromatin conformation.

Exponentially growing primary embryonic Chinese hamster cells, in which the pattern of distribution of heterochromatin is well characterized, were X-irradiated and fixed at 1, 2, 3, and 4 h following irradiation. In one set of cells repair of damage was completely blocked by ara A. The frequencies of chromatid breaks and exchanges were evaluated for individual chromosomes. An analysis of observed and estimated expected frequencies of chromosomal aberrations indicated that in general, (a) the initial damage was higher in euchromatic regions than the heterochromatic regions and (b) the repair of DNA lesions (as evaluated by the frequencies of chromatid gaps and breaks) was more efficient in euchromatic regions than heterochromatic regions.

DNA double-strand break rejoining in xrs5 cells is more rapid in the G2 than in the G1 phase of the cell cycle.

The radiosensitive xrs5 mutant cell line of CHO K1 shows an overall deficiency in DNA double-strand break (dsb) rejoining. However, xrs5 paradoxically shows an apparently normal rate of disappearance of chromatid breaks with time, the kinetics of which is thought to reflect the underlying rejoining of dsb. Nevertheless the yield of chromatid breaks is elevated by four-fold in xrs5. A possible explanation of the paradox might be that xrs5 is proficient in rejoining dsb in the G2 phase of the cell cycle but converts a higher number of dsb into chromatid breaks. In order to test this we have measured the rejoining of dsb in partially synchronised G2 xrs5 cells and compared the kinetics with those of cells synchronised in the G1 phase. Synchronisation of cells was achieved in G2 by release of cells from an aphidicolin block, and in G1 by staurosporine block. Cell synchrony was monitored by cytofluorometry and showed typically a 67% synchronisation of G2 cells and a 91% synchronisation of G1 cells. Rejoining of dsb was measured using neutral filter elution at pH 9.6. G2 cells showed a two-component kinetic with t1/2 values of 9 min and 3.6 h for dsb rejoining. Corresponding t1/2 values for G1 cells were 15 min and approximately 8.8 h. The t1/2 value of 3.6 h found for dsb rejoining in G2 cells is similar to a previously published value for asynchronous parental CHO K1 cells of approximately 4 h. The kinetics of chromatid break rejoining was measured in both xrs5 and CHO K1 following a dose of 0.75 Gy. The kinetics were found to be similar (t1/2 = 2.4 h) in the two cell lines, as previously reported using an equiclastogenic dose.

The involvement of telomeric sequences in chromosomal aberrations.

Three functional elements are required for the stable transmission of eukaryotic chromosomes: replication origins, centromeres and telomeres. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerivisiae the DNA sequences defining each of these elements are known. The simplest and most widely conserved of these sequences is that of the telomere. As the name implies, the telomere is the end of a linear eukaryotic chromosome. Two of the main functions of the telomere are to prevent DNA loss as a consequence of replication and to prevent interactions with other chromosomal ends. Thus, telomeres play a major role in maintaining chromosome stability and consequently they have been considered as likely to be involved in some aspects of chromosomal aberration formation. The involvement of telomeric DNA sequences in stabilizing normal and broken chromosome ends, in "hot spots' for aberration formation and in delayed chromosomal instability will be reviewed here drawing on material presented at the Workshop and the published literature.

Mechanisms of induction of chromosomal aberrations and their detection by fluorescence in situ hybridization.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique using chromosome specific probes has revolutionized the field of radiation cytogenetics in the last few years. Some of the new insights on the origins of radiation induced chromosome aberrations in human, mouse and Chinese hamster, using FISH are reviewed in this paper.